Power transmission grid infrastructures deliver electricity across large distance and are vital to the functioning of modern society. Increasingly these setups embody highly-coupled cyber-physical systems where advanced telecommunications networks are used to send status and control information to operate power transmission grid components, i.e., "smart grids". However, due to the high inter-dependency between the communication and power grid network layers, failure events can lead to further loss of control of key grid components, i.e., even if they are undamaged. In turn, such dependencies can exacerbate cascading failures and lead to larger electricity blackouts, particularly under disaster conditions. As a result, a range of studies have looked at modelling failures in interdependent smart grids. However most of these designs have not considered the use of proactive network-level survivability schemes. Indeed, these strategies can help maintain vital control connectivity during failures and potentially lead to reduced outages. Hence this thesis addresses this critical area and applies connection protection methodologies to reduce communication/control disruption in transmission grids. The performance of these schemes is then analyzed using detailed simulation for a sample IEEE transmission grid. Overall findings show a good reduction in the number of overloaded transmission lines when applying network-level recovery schemes.

Utility companies (electricity, gas, and water suppliers), governments, and researchers recognize an urgent need to deploy communication-based systems to automate data collection from smart meters and sensors, known as Smart Metering Infrastructure (SMI) or Automatic Meter Reading (AMR). A smart metering system is envisaged to bring tremendous benefits to customers, utilities, and governments. The advantages include reducing peak demand for energy, supporting the time-of-use concept for billing, enabling customers to make informed decisions, and performing effective load management, to name a few. A key element in an SMI is communications between meters and utility servers. However, the mass deployment of metering devices in the grid calls for studying the scalability of communication protocols. SMI is characterized by the deployment of a large number of small Internet Protocol (IP) devices sending small packets at a low rate to a central server. Although the individual devices generate data at a low rate, the collective traffic produced is significant and is disruptive to network communication functionality. This research work focuses on the scalability of the transport layer functionalities. The TCP congestion control mechanism, in particular, would be ineffective for the traffic of smart meters because a large volume of data comes from a large number of individual sources. This situation makes the TCP congestion control mechanism unable to lower the transmission rate even when congestion occurs. The consequences are a high loss rate for metered data and degraded throughput for competing traffic in the smart metering network. To enhance the performance of TCP in a smart metering infrastructure (SMI), we introduce a novel TCP-based scheme, called Split- and Aggregated-TCP (SA-TCP). This scheme is based on the idea of upgrading intermediate devices in SMI (known in the industry as regional collectors) to offer the service of aggregating the TCP connections. An SA-TCP aggregator collects data packets from the smart meters of its region over separate TCP connections; then it reliably forwards the data over another TCP connection to the utility server. The proposed split and aggregated scheme provides a better response to traffic conditions and, most importantly, makes the TCP congestion control and flow control mechanisms effective. Supported by extensive ns-2 simulations, we show the effectiveness of the SA-TCP approach to mitigating the problems in terms of the throughput and packet loss rate performance metrics. A full mathematical model of SA-TCP is provided. The model is highly accurate and flexible in predicting the behaviour of the two stages, separately and combined, of the SA-TCP scheme in terms of throughput, packet loss rate and end-to-end delay. Considering the two stages of the scheme, the modelling approach uses Markovian models to represent smart meters in the first stage and SA-TCP aggregators in the second. Then, the approach studies the interaction of smart meters and SA-TCP aggregators with the network by means of standard queuing models. The ns-2 simulations validate the math model results. A comprehensive performance analysis of the SA-TCP scheme is performed. It studies the impact of varying various parameters on the scheme, including the impact of network link capacity, buffering capacity of those RCs that act as SA-TCP aggregators, propagation delay between the meters and the utility server, and finally, the number of SA-TCP aggregators. The performance results show that adjusting those parameters makes it possible to further enhance congestion control in SMI. Therefore, this thesis also formulates an optimization model to achieve better TCP performance and ensures satisfactory performance results, such as a minimal loss rate and acceptable end-to-end delay. The optimization model also considers minimizing the SA-TCP scheme deployment cost by balancing the number of SA-TCP aggregators and the link bandwidth, while still satisfying performance requirements.

Favorable price trends and increasing demand for renewable energy sources portend accelerating integration of solar photovoltaic (PV) generation into traditional electric power system networks. Managing the variable output of massive PV resources makes system frequency regulation more complex and expensive. ISOs must procure additional regulation and load following capacity, while power plants must supply more regulation work. In contrast to costly physical storage solutions, this thesis proposes to address the issue by reconfiguring the electricity market pricing structure to translate all power imbalances into real-time market price signals. More accurately determining the instantaneous value of energy, electric power markets could reward participants who can quickly respond to frequency fluctuations. By utilizing short term forward markets to monetize the risk associated with intermittency, the true cost of reliability is determined and could reduce wasteful capacity payments. This market redesign is an ideal open platform for disparate smart grid technologies which could encourage all suppliers, loads and generator, to offer supply or reduce consumption when it is needed most and could vastly improve frequency performance metrics.

An optimally designed thermosiphon for power electronics cooling is developed. There exists a need for augmented grid assets to facilitate power routing and decrease line losses. Power converter augmented transformers (PCATs) are critically limited thermally. Conventional active cooling system pumps and fans will not meet the 30 year life and 99.9% reliability required for grid scale implementation. This approach seeks to develop a single-phase closed-loop thermosiphon to remove heat from power electronics at fluxes on the order of 10 - 15 W/cm2. The passive thermosiphon is inherently a coupled thermal-fluid system. A parametric model and multi-physics design optimization code will be constructed to simulate thermosiphon steady state performance. The model will utilize heat transfer and fluid dynamic correlations from literature. A particle swarm optimization technique will be implemented for its performance with discrete domain problems. Several thermosiphons will be constructed, instrumented, and tested to verify the model and reach an optimal design.

The objective of the research is to develop a cost-effective, dynamic grid controller called the controllable network transformer (CNT) that can be implemented by augmenting existing load tap changing (LTC) transformers with an AC-AC converter. The concept is based on using a fractionally rated direct AC-AC converter to control the power through an existing passive LTC. By using a modulation strategy based on virtual quadrature sources (VQS), it is possible to control both the magnitude and the phase angle of the output voltage of the CNT without having any inter-phase connections. The CNT architecture has many advantages over existing power flow controllers, like absence of low frequency storage, fractional converter rating, retro-fitting existing assets and independent per-phase operation making it potentially attractive for utility applications. The independent control of the magnitude and the phase angle of the output voltage allow independent real and reactive power flow control through the CNT-controlled line. In a meshed network with asymmetric network stresses this functionality can be used to redirect power from critically loaded assets to other relatively under-utilized parallel paths. The power flow controllability of CNT can thus be used to lower the overall cost of generation of power. The solid state switches in the CNT with fast response capability enable incorporation of various additional critical functionalities like grid fault ride through, bypassing internal faults and dynamic damping. This bouquet of features makes the CNT useful under both steady state and transient conditions without compromising the grid reliability.

Zielstellung dieser Arbeit ist es, Methodik und Verfahren zur Modellierung von Leistungshalbleitern zu erarbeiten, um die Verfügbarkeit und Handhabbarkeit dieser Modelle für die Schaltungsanalyse zu erhöhen. Ausgangspunkt ist eine Analyse der Anforderung und ein Vergleich mit den gegebenen ökonomischen und fachlichen Möglichkeiten. Im Ergebnis wird ein hierarchischer Aufbau von Verhaltensmodellen befürwortet. Die zur Modellrealisierung benötigten Techniken werden vorgestellt. Das erarbeitete Verfahren zur verhaltensbeschreibenden Modellierung erfordert eine am Modellumfang orientierte Wahl der Beschreibungssprache und zeichnet sich durch Verwendung von Datenblattangaben zur Parametrisierung und geringem Simulationszeitbedarf der Modelle aus. Für diskrete Einzelhalbleiter werden physikalisch interpretierbare Ersatzschaltungen auf Grund ihrer hoher Anschaulichkeit und der erreichbaren Portabilität der Modelle bevorzugt, komplexere Modelle mit Steuer- und Schutzeinrichtungen sind mit Zustandsbeschreibungen zu kombinieren. Der allgemeingültige Ansatz ist auf beliebige Leistungshalbleiter anwendbar und wird ausführlich anhand des IGBT, von Smart-Power-Elementen und anderer Bauelemente dargelegt.

The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 established that the current electric grid was inadequate to serve the United States needs. Congress mandated that the U.S. transition to a more intelligent grid for the future. The Department of Energy was tasked with making this goal a reality. Six years later in 2013, only marginal progress has been made. Outside of smart meter rollouts and pilots programs funded through the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA), many issues still need to be addressed in order to realize the U.S. Smart Grid vision. Most of the barriers to progress are not technological; the research and business community are rising to the occasion and meeting the challenge through innovation. However, policy issues present a large barrier to overcome. With issues ranging from vague Smart Grids goals issued by the Department of Energy to a general lack of consumer knowledge about the Smart Grid. This paper seeks to identify the gaps in the current electric grid and policy schema are inadequate and suggest recommendations to encourage and expedite the growth of the U.S. Smart Grid.

Utility companies (electricity, gas, and water suppliers), governments, and researchers recognize an urgent need to deploy communication-based systems to automate data collection from smart meters and sensors, known as Smart Metering Infrastructure (SMI) or Automatic Meter Reading (AMR). A smart metering system is envisaged to bring tremendous benefits to customers, utilities, and governments. The advantages include reducing peak demand for energy, supporting the time-of-use concept for billing, enabling customers to make informed decisions, and performing effective load management, to name a few. A key element in an SMI is communications between meters and utility servers. However, the mass deployment of metering devices in the grid calls for studying the scalability of communication protocols. SMI is characterized by the deployment of a large number of small Internet Protocol (IP) devices sending small packets at a low rate to a central server. Although the individual devices generate data at a low rate, the collective traffic produced is significant and is disruptive to network communication functionality. This research work focuses on the scalability of the transport layer functionalities. The TCP congestion control mechanism, in particular, would be ineffective for the traffic of smart meters because a large volume of data comes from a large number of individual sources. This situation makes the TCP congestion control mechanism unable to lower the transmission rate even when congestion occurs. The consequences are a high loss rate for metered data and degraded throughput for competing traffic in the smart metering network. To enhance the performance of TCP in a smart metering infrastructure (SMI), we introduce a novel TCP-based scheme, called Split- and Aggregated-TCP (SA-TCP). This scheme is based on the idea of upgrading intermediate devices in SMI (known in the industry as regional collectors) to offer the service of aggregating the TCP connections. An SA-TCP aggregator collects data packets from the smart meters of its region over separate TCP connections; then it reliably forwards the data over another TCP connection to the utility server. The proposed split and aggregated scheme provides a better response to traffic conditions and, most importantly, makes the TCP congestion control and flow control mechanisms effective. Supported by extensive ns-2 simulations, we show the effectiveness of the SA-TCP approach to mitigating the problems in terms of the throughput and packet loss rate performance metrics. A full mathematical model of SA-TCP is provided. The model is highly accurate and flexible in predicting the behaviour of the two stages, separately and combined, of the SA-TCP scheme in terms of throughput, packet loss rate and end-to-end delay. Considering the two stages of the scheme, the modelling approach uses Markovian models to represent smart meters in the first stage and SA-TCP aggregators in the second. Then, the approach studies the interaction of smart meters and SA-TCP aggregators with the network by means of standard queuing models. The ns-2 simulations validate the math model results. A comprehensive performance analysis of the SA-TCP scheme is performed. It studies the impact of varying various parameters on the scheme, including the impact of network link capacity, buffering capacity of those RCs that act as SA-TCP aggregators, propagation delay between the meters and the utility server, and finally, the number of SA-TCP aggregators. The performance results show that adjusting those parameters makes it possible to further enhance congestion control in SMI. Therefore, this thesis also formulates an optimization model to achieve better TCP performance and ensures satisfactory performance results, such as a minimal loss rate and acceptable end-to-end delay. The optimization model also considers minimizing the SA-TCP scheme deployment cost by balancing the number of SA-TCP aggregators and the link bandwidth, while still satisfying performance requirements.

Zugl.: München, Techn. Univ., Diss., 2008

Orientador: Aílton Akira Shinoda / Co-orientador: Ruy de Oliveira / Banca: Christiane Marie Schweitzer / Banca: Élvio João Leonardo / Resumo: Nas últimas décadas, os desafios no setor de energia elétrica têm aumentado significativamente, quer seja por questões referentes à forma como a energia é gerada e distribuída, ou pela postura do consumidor perante a rede elétrica. Diante da necessidade de uma reestruturação no negócio de energia elétrica, países investem em um conceito conhecido como Smart Grid, que tem como alvo a otimização e automação da rede de energia elétrica, utilizando tecnologias de informação e comunicação avançadas. Entre os principais objetivos propostos pela implementação das Smart Grids estão: aumento na confiabilidade da rede; redução de falhas no fornecimento de energia; redução de tempo e custo com manutenção na rede; registros mais precisos do consumo de energia; inserção de fontes renováveis de energia na rede, a fim de proporcionar um ambiente mais limpo. Investimentos em tecnologias de comunicação, componente fundamental para o bom desempenho das Smart Grids, merecem atenção especial. Diminuir o tempo de recuperação a falhas, inserir fontes de energias alternativas, entre outras funcionalidades, requerem uma rede eficiente e rápida. Os domínios de uma Smart Grid, possuem demandas de comunicação diversificadas, o que exige o emprego de diferentes tecnologias de comunicação, tornando sua implementação complexa. Dentre os protocolos de comunicação existentes, o Distributed Network Protocol 3.0 (DNP3) é um protocolo de comunicação baseado nas especificações do IEC (International Eletrotechnical Commission) e adaptado para ser utilizado em aplicações altamente seguras com taxa de transmissão de dados moderada. Vários trabalhos apontam para possíveis utilizações do protocolo DNP3 em conjunto com outros padrões de comunicação (IEEE 802.3, IEEE 802.11, IEEE 802.15.4). O IEEE 802.15.4 é um padrão de baixo consumo e seu uso tem sido difundido como solução adequada para redes de sensores sem fio em... / Abstract: Over the last decades, the challenges in the electricity sector have significantly increased, either by the issues regarding the way energy is generated and distributed by the consumer's attitude towards the electrical grid. In order to restructure the business model in the electricity sector, countries around the world have decided to invest in a concept known as Smart Grid. This system includes technologies such as digital, information and communication Technology (ICT). This concept aims to optimize and automate the electricity sector. The major changes proposed by the implementation of the Smart Grid are: higher network reliability, less failures in the power supply, lower time and costs of maintenance in the network, more accurate records of energy use by the consumer; and insertion of new energy sources in the network, contributing to reducing carbon dioxide emissions. Thus, investments in communication technologies is considered a key component for the performance of Smart Grids, as this technology demands diversified communication protocols that have to be fast and might involve a complex communication network. Among the existing communication protocols, the Distributed Network Protocol 3.0 (DNP3) is a protocol based on the specifications of the IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) and adapted for use on highly secure applications with moderate data transmission rates. Several studies have pointed to possible use of the DNP3 protocol in conjunction with other communication standards such as IEEE 802.3, IEEE 802.11 and IEEE 802.15.4. The IEEE 802.15.4 is a standard for low power consumption and it has been disseminated as an appropriate solution for wireless sensor networks in several areas, such as industrial, commercial, residential and academic. The implementation of a heterogeneous communication network - to study and evaluate the behavior of a particular technology - is a highly costly process. However, computer ... / Mestre