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This dissertation attempts to test the applicability of the neoclassical, orthodox Marxist, and dependency paradigms in light of the development experiences of Tanzania and Kenya. The larger goal of the dissertation is a preliminary formulation of an alternative development approach which is non-essentialist and class focused. In chapter one, the dissertation format as well as statements of the problems are introduced. In chapter two, the international context within which the two countries must operate is discussed. In chapter three, the three theoretical approaches are critically examined. In chapter four, the colonial history of Tanzania and Kenya, designed to acquaint the readers with the two countries is sketched. In chapter five, the two countries' actual development experiences are examined. Specifically, the role of the state, the industrial and agricultural development experiences of both countries are closely examined. In chapter six, the three theoretical paradigms in light of the experiences of Tanzania and Kenya are assessed. The assessment shows that none of the paradigms fully describes or adequately explains their process of development. Finally, in chapter seven, an all-encompassing alternative development approach based on the concept of "overdetermination" is proposed.

The intent of this study was to explore directly from the statements of youth themselves how teens experience youth empowerment through participation in youth groups. This study was based upon an analysis of youth as a group oppressed by adultism. Empowerment is the essential process by which this oppression is overcome. Through the personal accounts of a sample of eight youths who belong to six diverse organizations, a deeper understanding has been developed of what are the essential ingredients for the empowerment of youth. The study used qualitative research methods to explore in depth the experience of youth through interviews conducted by the researcher. A methodology which encouraged youth to reflect and enter into a dialogue was selected to be consistent with the empowerment process. The analysis of the data was completed in two sections. The first section consists of participants' profiles which summarized personal stories prior to group involvement and significant experiences with the group that lead to the youths' empowerment. In the second section an inductive analysis of the data was made to discover emerging themes in the youths' experience of the empowerment process. This research concludes that incorporating three components in a youth empowerment model--emotional nurturance, intellectual challenge, shared power with adults--results in a successful formula for the transformation from disempowerment to empowerment. The empowerment organization provides emotional nurturance, consisting of a safe environment and closeness, expression of emotions and conflict resolution and the acceptance of diversity. Such emotional nurturance lays a strong foundation and creates a positive organizational climate. In this climate, intellectual challenge is developed: youth receive sophisticated training and education which builds critical analysis and fosters the development of their voice. Through this combination of intellectual and emotional growth, many aspects of the youth developed as individually and as group members. Emotional nurturance and intellectual challenge are set in a context of shared power which includes a non-authoritarian relationships adult leader. Youth have the opportunity to experience and exercise power which helps them to choose where and how to take action. This results in increased self esteem and empowerment.

During the nineteen eighties, democratic political regimes replaced military dictatorships in several South American countries. Many social movements arose under conditions of severe repression and then gained considerable strength in contexts defined by the inception of these political transitions. But subsequently they tended to slow down, weaken, and even to dissolve. While under very adverse political conditions social groups developed autonomous forms of organization and action, yet once these conditions started to improve they were not able to maintain their initial momentum. This dissertation provides a deeper understanding of this phenomenon. In advancing a conceptualization addressing the emergence, further development, and ensuing destiny of diverse social democratization processes during different political transitions, we constructed a descriptive model of transition, using secondary sources. Also, we gathered empirical information and elaborated detailed descriptions of different social groups belonging to several social movements which were active during the transitions that occurred in Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay. These include groups related to student, labor, human rights, and landless movements. Based on this, and using the descriptive model as a background scenario, comparisons were developed which lead to the finding of several recurrent patterns, enabling a better discernment of the factual interweaving between social democratization and political democratization processes in local realms. Once we reached this discernment, it was possible to advance a middle range theorization which faces the consequences these analyses have for questions around identity, antagonism, and rights. Even though such a theorization has grown from an effort to understand a very specific phenomenon, it provides good grounds not to answer, but at least to pose some questions about democracy as such.

This work examines planning as a determinant in the history of the development of human services at Morgan Memorial Goodwill Industries, Inc. of Boston Massachusetts. The lives of the founding fathers are examined in some detail as are the social and economic times of the founding of the organization. The philosophical development of Morgan Memorial and that of Edgar James Helms as well as a synopsis of treatment of the poor from Judeo-Christian times is also related. Presented in some detail are the successes of the agency, its failures and opportunities lost throughout its 95 year history, against a tapestry of planning where evident. The work is a chronology of the founding, early life, maturing of the agency and concludes in its final chapter with the development of the wide array of present day services which have placed Morgan Memorial in a leadership position in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts among human services agencies. Research materials included the organization's published annual reports, board of directors' meeting minutes, autobiographical and collateral historic materials. Oral history from Rev. Henry E. Helms, Emil M. Hartl, Ph.D., and observations by this writer in more than twenty years with Morgan Memorial are also incorporated. It is expected that the reader will be convinced that planning in a human service agency is vital to its orderly growth and development.

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