Où va le temps de travail ? Cette thèse reprend et tente de prolonger cette interrogation formulée, il y a presque vingt ans. En s’appuyant sur une étude quantitative et qualitative des dispositifs négociés de compte épargne-temps et des stratégies d’articulation des temps sociaux mises en œuvre par les salariés, cette thèse donne corps à la notion de désynchronisation. En admettant que l’industrialisation ait conduit à une synchronisation des temps professionnels et sociaux, cette recherche s’attache à montrer que ce mouvement s’est inversé. Elle dessine les contours d’un phénomène en construction, qui permet des configurations individuelles des temps et généralise ses marchandages. La thèse dresse le bilan de cette évolution en matière d’égalité, de classes et de genre ; elle expose les possibilités d’articulation temporelle et les risques relatifs à l’isolement et au maintien du lien social. En cherchant à faire la lumière sur le phénomène de désynchronisation, cette thèse s’interroge sur l’avènement d’un nouvel ordre temporel : le marché des temps. / Where is working time going? This thesis resumes and attempts to extend this query/question formulated almost twenty years ago.Based on a quantitative and qualitative study of negotiated time-saving accounts, and on employees’ strategies for social times articulation, this PhD thesis gives substance to the notion of desynchronization. Assuming that industrialization has led to a synchronization of professional and social times, it seeks to show that this movement has been reversed. It describes this phenomenon under construction, which allows individual configurations and generalizes time bargaining. It assesses class and gender equality; it exposes the opportunities for time articulation; it qualifies the risks of isolation and reveals the consequences for social ties. In seeking to shed light on the phenomenon of desynchronization, this thesis questions the advent of a new temporal order: the market of times.

Esta tese, que se insere na área de História e Historiografia da Educação, busca compreender os processos de construção do tempo das escolas primárias em São Paulo, entre os anos de 1846 e 1890, num momento em que os sistemas públicos primários de ensino emergiam no âmbito mundial. Particularmente, procura-se entender como as discussões que antecedem a criação das escolas graduadas (1893), corroboram o delineamento de um tempo próprio da escola. As fontes da legislação, dos relatórios de inspeção e dos professores além de outras fontes manuscritas como mapas de freqüência, livros de matrícula, circulares, ofícios, encontrados no Arquivo do Estado trazem elementos significativos acerca do que se entendia quanto a tempo escolar, quais as categorias que se faziam presentes, os desafios da construção de um tempo próprio da escola num momento em que a escola primária ainda não era considerada como responsável ou legítima para educar as crianças. Os conceitos de estratégias (Certeau), representações e apropriações (Chartier) sustentam o exame das fontes. Este trabalho evidencia a transição de um tempo da infância regulado por outras referências sociais para um tempo regulado também pela escola. Embora comporte diversas possibilidades analíticas, a expressão \"estudo sobre o tempo das escolas públicas primárias\" designa o conjunto de medidas e discussões tanto administrativo-organizacionais referentes ao calendário (dias letivos ou não, interrupções das aulas, feriados, férias, matrícula, exames); aos marcos como a idade e os horários e a quantidade de horas de permanência na escola; e à organização do tempo didático (Chevallard e Mercier). O que se chama de tempo didático integra a duração do ensino primário, a definição e ordenação dos conteúdos a serem desenvolvidos com as crianças, os modos de ensinar e aprender e o emprego do tempo. É visível, a partir de meados do século XIX, que cada um desses elementos da estrutura temporal da escola vai sendo arquitetado para integrar pouco a pouco uma temporalidade identitária da instituição escolar. Nesse processo, instalaram-se novos tempos para os professores, para os alunos, mas também para a sociedade em geral, e, de modo particular, para as famílias que tinham crianças nas escolas primárias. Ao situar-se num momento histórico que antecede o que há alguns anos foi consagrado pela literatura tradicional de História da Educação como o \"período áureo da educação brasileira\", de modo particular os anos 1890 e 1920, este estudo colabora com as discussões já iniciadas sobre a construção das escolas públicas primárias em São Paulo, mediante a ênfase no aspecto temporal. / This thesis, in the field of Education History and Historiography, aims to understand the processes by which time was constructed in elementary schools in São Paulo, between the years of 1846 and 1890. That was a period when public elementary systems of schooling arose in a worldwide set. It is of special interest to understand how the debates that occurred before the creation of graduated schools (1893), contributed to the definition of school times. This analysis has to consider the specific context of the society (slavery, monarchy, rural economy), its institutions dedicated to the education of childhood (as family and Church) and the school existent in the period. Through this analysis it is possible to contibute to the understanding of the specificities of school culture, considering that it is builted from a specific context in the intersection of social ends (Julia). This concept is also apprehended as the combination of influences from the norms, from those who act in teaching and scholar theories (Escolano). Considering that the school culture and form of the graduate school come from earlier periods (Julia, Vincent) we integrate to this text histories of time in other countries and the cultural influences of other periods and institutions. The documentary sources are the legislation, inspectors\' and teachers\' reports, as well as other manuscripts as freqüency maps, enrollment books and deliberations on everyday business found in the State Archive. These documents express strategies (Certeau), representations and appropriations (Chartier) and bring significant elements on what was understood as school time, what were the categories used and the challenges of the construction of a specific school time when the elementary school wasn\'t still perceived as the main and legitimate institution for the education of the children. In this sense, this research shows the transition of an infant time ruled by other social references to a time that is also regulated by the school. The generic expression \"study on the time of public elementary schools\" contemplates several analytical possibilities, however it refers here to a set of administrative and legal measures, as well as the debates. This set concerns the calendar (school days, hollydays, vacations, enrollment, tests); the milestones as proper school age as well as the distribution and total amount of hours students had to remain in school; also the organization of the didactic time (Chevallard e Mercier) that is a part of elementary schooling, the definition and organization of the contents to be taught to the children, ways of teaching and learning - all of that concerning to the employment of time. It is noticeable, since the middle of the XIXth. Century, that each and every one of these elements of school temporal structure was being planned to integrate progressively a temporality that is central to the identity of this institution. During this process, new times were imposed on teachers and students, but also on the general society and particularly on the families that had children in elementary schools. This analysis contributes to the debates on the construction of public elementary schools in São Paulo because it points out processes that emerged before the period that is traditionally considered by the History of Education as the \"golden ages\" of schooling in the country (especially the years of 1890 and 1920).

Esta tese, que se insere na área de História e Historiografia da Educação, busca compreender os processos de construção do tempo das escolas primárias em São Paulo, entre os anos de 1846 e 1890, num momento em que os sistemas públicos primários de ensino emergiam no âmbito mundial. Particularmente, procura-se entender como as discussões que antecedem a criação das escolas graduadas (1893), corroboram o delineamento de um tempo próprio da escola. As fontes da legislação, dos relatórios de inspeção e dos professores além de outras fontes manuscritas como mapas de freqüência, livros de matrícula, circulares, ofícios, encontrados no Arquivo do Estado trazem elementos significativos acerca do que se entendia quanto a tempo escolar, quais as categorias que se faziam presentes, os desafios da construção de um tempo próprio da escola num momento em que a escola primária ainda não era considerada como responsável ou legítima para educar as crianças. Os conceitos de estratégias (Certeau), representações e apropriações (Chartier) sustentam o exame das fontes. Este trabalho evidencia a transição de um tempo da infância regulado por outras referências sociais para um tempo regulado também pela escola. Embora comporte diversas possibilidades analíticas, a expressão \"estudo sobre o tempo das escolas públicas primárias\" designa o conjunto de medidas e discussões tanto administrativo-organizacionais referentes ao calendário (dias letivos ou não, interrupções das aulas, feriados, férias, matrícula, exames); aos marcos como a idade e os horários e a quantidade de horas de permanência na escola; e à organização do tempo didático (Chevallard e Mercier). O que se chama de tempo didático integra a duração do ensino primário, a definição e ordenação dos conteúdos a serem desenvolvidos com as crianças, os modos de ensinar e aprender e o emprego do tempo. É visível, a partir de meados do século XIX, que cada um desses elementos da estrutura temporal da escola vai sendo arquitetado para integrar pouco a pouco uma temporalidade identitária da instituição escolar. Nesse processo, instalaram-se novos tempos para os professores, para os alunos, mas também para a sociedade em geral, e, de modo particular, para as famílias que tinham crianças nas escolas primárias. Ao situar-se num momento histórico que antecede o que há alguns anos foi consagrado pela literatura tradicional de História da Educação como o \"período áureo da educação brasileira\", de modo particular os anos 1890 e 1920, este estudo colabora com as discussões já iniciadas sobre a construção das escolas públicas primárias em São Paulo, mediante a ênfase no aspecto temporal. / This thesis, in the field of Education History and Historiography, aims to understand the processes by which time was constructed in elementary schools in São Paulo, between the years of 1846 and 1890. That was a period when public elementary systems of schooling arose in a worldwide set. It is of special interest to understand how the debates that occurred before the creation of graduated schools (1893), contributed to the definition of school times. This analysis has to consider the specific context of the society (slavery, monarchy, rural economy), its institutions dedicated to the education of childhood (as family and Church) and the school existent in the period. Through this analysis it is possible to contibute to the understanding of the specificities of school culture, considering that it is builted from a specific context in the intersection of social ends (Julia). This concept is also apprehended as the combination of influences from the norms, from those who act in teaching and scholar theories (Escolano). Considering that the school culture and form of the graduate school come from earlier periods (Julia, Vincent) we integrate to this text histories of time in other countries and the cultural influences of other periods and institutions. The documentary sources are the legislation, inspectors\' and teachers\' reports, as well as other manuscripts as freqüency maps, enrollment books and deliberations on everyday business found in the State Archive. These documents express strategies (Certeau), representations and appropriations (Chartier) and bring significant elements on what was understood as school time, what were the categories used and the challenges of the construction of a specific school time when the elementary school wasn\'t still perceived as the main and legitimate institution for the education of the children. In this sense, this research shows the transition of an infant time ruled by other social references to a time that is also regulated by the school. The generic expression \"study on the time of public elementary schools\" contemplates several analytical possibilities, however it refers here to a set of administrative and legal measures, as well as the debates. This set concerns the calendar (school days, hollydays, vacations, enrollment, tests); the milestones as proper school age as well as the distribution and total amount of hours students had to remain in school; also the organization of the didactic time (Chevallard e Mercier) that is a part of elementary schooling, the definition and organization of the contents to be taught to the children, ways of teaching and learning - all of that concerning to the employment of time. It is noticeable, since the middle of the XIXth. Century, that each and every one of these elements of school temporal structure was being planned to integrate progressively a temporality that is central to the identity of this institution. During this process, new times were imposed on teachers and students, but also on the general society and particularly on the families that had children in elementary schools. This analysis contributes to the debates on the construction of public elementary schools in São Paulo because it points out processes that emerged before the period that is traditionally considered by the History of Education as the \"golden ages\" of schooling in the country (especially the years of 1890 and 1920).