Sulfatide is a galactolipid and a major lipid component of the myelin sheath. Its production is catalyzed by the enzyme cerebroside sulfotransferase (CST). To determine the functions of sulfatide, the gene encoding CST was genetically disrupted resulting in mice incapable of sulfatide synthesis. Using these mice, it has been shown in the central nervous system (CNS) that sulfatide is essential for normal myelin synthesis and stability even though the onset of myelination is not impaired. Additionally, proper initial clustering of paranodal proteins and cluster maintenance of nodal proteins is impaired suggesting that paranodal domains are important for long-term node stability. In contrast to the CNS, a requirement for sulfatide in the initiation of myelination, and in initiation of paranodal and nodal clustering or in the long-term maintenance of these clusters in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) has not been analyzed. Therefore, we have employed a combination of electron microscopic, immunocytochemical, and confocal microscopic analyses of the CST KO mice to determine the role of sulfatide in PNS myelination and onset of protein domain formation and maintenance. For these studies we have quantified myelin thickness, paranodal structural integrity, and the number of paranodal and nodal protein clusters in the CST KO and wild type mice at 4 days, 7 days, and 10 months of age. Our findings indicate that myelination onset is not delayed in the absence of sulfatide and that both the node and paranode are grossly normal; however, closer analysis reveals that paranodal junctions are compromised, Schwann cell microvilli are disoriented and the myelin-axon interface along the internodal region is transiently disrupted. In addition, we report that the paranodal myelin protein neurofascin 155 (Nfasc155) shows a transient decrease in initial clustering in the CST null mice at 4 days of age that is restored to WT levels by 7 days of age that is also maintained in the adult mice. Whereas nodal clustering of neuronal voltage-gated sodium channels is initially normal, cluster number is significantly but also transiently reduced by 7 days of age. By 10 months of age, the number of sodium channel clusters is restored to normal levels. In contrast, clustering of neither the paranodal neuronal protein contactin nor the myelin nodal protein gliomedin is altered at any of the ages studied. Together our findings suggest that sulfatide is not essential for PNS myelination or for protein domain formation in contrast to its more vital role in the development and maintenance of the CNS.

Os efeitos inibitórios do eugenol (EUG) em canais para Na+ ativados por voltagem (NaV) mostrados anteriormente não são totalmente compatíveis com nossos resultados. Nós estudamos os efeitos do EUG em correntes macroscópicas de Na+ e os comparamos aos da lidocaína, um anestésico local, para referência. O EUG bloqueou, rápida e reversivelmente, correntes de Na+ mistas (TTX-S+TTX-R) assim como as correntes de Na+ TTX-R. As IC50 para a inibição das correntes mistas e TTX-R pelo EUG foram de 2,28 e 2,27 mmol/L, respectivamente. O bloqueio depende da freqüência de despolarizações. Nas correntes mistas, o EUG desloca a curva de ativação para a direita, a de inativação para a esquerda, não altera a cinética de inativação e retarda a recuperação da inativação, rápida e lenta, dos canais. Nas correntes TTX-R, o efeito é semelhante, exceto na curva de ativação, que não é deslocada. Nós concluímos que o EUG bloqueia os NaV por se ligar a estados conformacionais de repouso e inativados, rápido e lento. Os efeitos são semelhantes, mas não idênticos aos da lidocaína. / The previously described inhibitory effects of eugenol (EUG) on voltage-activated Na+ channels (Nav) are not compatible with our results. We have studied the effects of EUG on macroscopic Na+ currents and compared them to the effects of lidocaine, a local anesthetic. EUG blocked both mixed (TTX-S and TTX-R) and TTX-R Na+ currents in a fast and reversible manner. The values of IC50 for the inhibition of mixed and TTX-R currents were 2.28 and 2.27 mmol/L respectively. The blockade depends on frequency of depolarizing pulses. In mixed currents EUG displaced the activation curve to the right, the inactivation curve to the left, does not alter the inactivation kinetics and retards the recovery from inactivation, fast and slow, of the Na+ channels. In TTX-R currents, EUG effects were similar, except on the activation curve, which was not shifted. In conclusion, EUG blocks Nav by binding to the resting and inactivated conformational states of channels, fast and slow. EUG effects resembles lidocaine ones, but are not identical.

Dissertation (Ph.D.)--University of South Florida, 2008. / Includes vita. Also available online. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 121-140).

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of South Florida, 2005. / Includes vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 128-144). Also available online.

<p>Fibroblast growth factor homologous factors (FHFs) are noncanonical members of the fibroblast growth factor family (FGFs, FGF11-FGF14) that bind directly to voltage gated sodium channels (VGSCs), thereby regulating channel activity and consequently neuronal excitability. Mutations in FGF14 cause spinocerebellar ataxia while FGF13 is a candidate for X-linked mental retardation. Since FGF13 and FGF14 are nearly identical within their respective VGSC-interacting domains, those distinct pathological consequences have generally been attributed to regional differences in expression. I have shown that FGF13 and FGF14 have non-overlapping subcellular distributions and biological roles even in hippocampal neurons where both are prominent. While both FHFs are abundant in the axon initial segment (AIS), only FGF13 is observed within the soma and dendrites. shRNA knockdown and rescue strategies showed that FGF14 regulates axonal VGSCs, while FGF13 only affects VGSCs in the somatodendritic compartment. Thus, FGF13 and FGF14 have nonredundant roles in hippocampal neurons, with FGF14 acting as an AIS-dominant positive regulator and FGF13 serving as a somatodendritic negative regulator. Both of these FHFs also perform important non-VGSC regulatory roles. FGF14 is a novel potassium channel regulator, which binds to KCNQ2 and regulates both localization and function. FGF14 is also capable of serving as a “bridge” between VGSCs and KCNQ2 thus implicating it as a broad organizer of the AIS. FGF13, on the other hand is involved in a new form of neuronal plasticity called axon initial segment structural plasticity. Knockdown of FGF13 impairs AIS structural plasticity and reduces L-type CaV current through channels known to be important to this new form of plasticity. Both of these novel non-VGSC roles are specific to the FHF in question because FGF13 does not regulate KCNQ2 whereas FGF14 knockdown does not affect AIS position. These data imply wider roles for FHFs in neuronal regulation that may contribute to differing roles in neural disease.</p> / Dissertation

Os efeitos inibitórios do eugenol (EUG) em canais para Na+ ativados por voltagem (NaV) mostrados anteriormente não são totalmente compatíveis com nossos resultados. Nós estudamos os efeitos do EUG em correntes macroscópicas de Na+ e os comparamos aos da lidocaína, um anestésico local, para referência. O EUG bloqueou, rápida e reversivelmente, correntes de Na+ mistas (TTX-S+TTX-R) assim como as correntes de Na+ TTX-R. As IC50 para a inibição das correntes mistas e TTX-R pelo EUG foram de 2,28 e 2,27 mmol/L, respectivamente. O bloqueio depende da freqüência de despolarizações. Nas correntes mistas, o EUG desloca a curva de ativação para a direita, a de inativação para a esquerda, não altera a cinética de inativação e retarda a recuperação da inativação, rápida e lenta, dos canais. Nas correntes TTX-R, o efeito é semelhante, exceto na curva de ativação, que não é deslocada. Nós concluímos que o EUG bloqueia os NaV por se ligar a estados conformacionais de repouso e inativados, rápido e lento. Os efeitos são semelhantes, mas não idênticos aos da lidocaína. / The previously described inhibitory effects of eugenol (EUG) on voltage-activated Na+ channels (Nav) are not compatible with our results. We have studied the effects of EUG on macroscopic Na+ currents and compared them to the effects of lidocaine, a local anesthetic. EUG blocked both mixed (TTX-S and TTX-R) and TTX-R Na+ currents in a fast and reversible manner. The values of IC50 for the inhibition of mixed and TTX-R currents were 2.28 and 2.27 mmol/L respectively. The blockade depends on frequency of depolarizing pulses. In mixed currents EUG displaced the activation curve to the right, the inactivation curve to the left, does not alter the inactivation kinetics and retards the recovery from inactivation, fast and slow, of the Na+ channels. In TTX-R currents, EUG effects were similar, except on the activation curve, which was not shifted. In conclusion, EUG blocks Nav by binding to the resting and inactivated conformational states of channels, fast and slow. EUG effects resembles lidocaine ones, but are not identical.

Les canaux calciques de type T Cav3.2 sont des régulateurs clés des fonctions sensorielles, et de fait sont également des cibles intéressantes pour le développement de nouveaux composés analgésiques pour le traitement et le management de la douleur. Malgré de récentes avancées dans l’identification de petites molécules organiques ciblant la famille des canaux Cav3.x/Type T, il reste encore à identifier un inhibiteur spécifique de Cav3.2. Le venin d’araignées contient une large diversité de neurotoxines incluant des modificateurs de gating des canaux calciques. En utilisant des canaux calciques recombinants, nous avons procédé à un criblage d’une bibliothèque de venins et avons identifié un nouveau peptide de 28 acides aminés (Psp3Tx1). La forme synthétique de ce peptide a été utilisé pour déterminer son profil de selectivité sur un panel de membres proches de la famille des canaux calciques (Cav) et sodiques (Nav) dépendants du voltage. Le peptide est sélectif pour le canal Nav1.7 (une cible largement validée dans le contexte des pathologies de la douleur) avec un effet complémentaire sur Cav3.2 à de fortes doses. In vivo chez la souris, le peptide possède des propriétés analgésiques avec des effets anti-hyperalgésiques et anti-allodyniques dans un contexte de douleur neuropathique. Ce peptide possède également un pouvoir analgésique dans un contexte de douleur spontanée induit par un agoniste des canaux Nav1.7. Les résultats présentés dans cette thèse sont encourageants pour la mise en place d’un projet amenant Psp3Tx1 au niveau clinique. / The T-type calcium channel Cav3.2 emerges as a key regulator of sensory functions, and therefore is an interesting drug target to develop innovative analgesic compounds for improved chronic pain management. Despite recent advances in the identification of small organic molecules targeting the Cav3.x/T-type calcium channel family, to date specific Cav3.2 inhibitors remains to be identified. Spider venoms proved to contain a large diversity of neurotoxins including gating modifiers of calcium channels. Using recombinant Cav3.2 channels, we performed a screening of a Tarantula venom library and identified a new 28 amino acid peptide (Psp3Tx1). The synthetic form of the peptide was used to determine its selectivity profile over a panel of closely related members of the voltage gated calcium (Cav) and sodium (Nav) channels. The peptide proved to be selective for the Nav1.7 channel (largely validated target in the context of pain pathologies) with an additional effect on Cav3.2 at more elevated doses. In vivo in mice, the peptide demonstrated to be an efficient analgesic molecule with anti hyperalgesic and antiallodynic properties in the context of neuropathic pain. This peptide also possess analgesic properties in a context of spontaneous pain induced by a Nav1.7 agonist. The results presented in this thesis are encouraging for the setup of a project taking Psp3Tx1 into clinical tests.

Orientador: Ana Maria Lima de Azeredo-Espin / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-14T11:05:22Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Silva_NormaMachadoda_D.pdf: 6129934 bytes, checksum: 5d8a07895afd2e470c9fd5caf8ac9fb8 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009 / Resumo: Cochliomyia hominivorax é considerada uma importante praga por causar perdas econômicas para a pecuária na região Neotropical. Este ectoparasita tem sido controlado principalmente por inseticidas, entretanto, este método normalmente resulta na seleção de indivíduos resistentes. Nesta tese foram investigados mecanismos associados com resistência a inseticidas organofosforados e piretróides. Os resultados apresentados nesta tese estão divididos em dois artigos. No artigo 1 foram investigados dois mecanismos de resistência a piretróides, um conhecido como kdr (knockdown resistance), associado à mutações no canal de sódio, e a mutação W251S no gene da carboxilesterase E3, a qual têm sido associada à hidrólise de piretróides. Foram investigadas populações da atual distribuição geográfica de C. hominivorax através de PCR-RFLP. Para a mutação kdr (L1014F) nenhum indivíduo mutante foi encontrado. Entretanto, a mutação W251S foi encontrada em todas as populações, com as mais altas freqüências nas amostras da Venezuela (100%) e Colômbia (93.75%). Em algumas populações amostradas, apesar da freqüência do alelo mutante ter sido relativamente baixa, o número de indivíduos portadores de pelo menos um alelo mutante foi alto. No bioensaio com cipermetrina (piretróide tipo II), utilizando amostras de Estiva (MG), os resultados analisados através do teste exato de Fisher indicaram que para a mais baixa concentração (p=0.0003) e para uma concentração intermediária (p= 0.024), a presença da mutação W251S está correlacionada com as chances de sobrevivência. Entretanto, na mais alta concentração (p= 0.221) a presença desta mutação não foi correlacionada com a sobrevivência, o que possivelmente indica dificuldade em hidrolisar este tipo de piretróide em concentrações maiores. No Artigo 2, as mutações G137D no gene da carboxilesterase E3, e as mutações I298V, G401A e F466Y no gene da acetilcolinesterase, associadas com resistência a organofosforados, foram investigadas nas mesmas populações do artigo 1, através de PCR-RFLP e sequenciamento direto de PCR. A região codificante completa da acetilcolinesterase também foi caracterizada e proposto um modelo para a estrutura tridimensional desta proteína com base na estrutura da acetilcolinesterase de Drosophila melanogaster. Possíveis alterações na proteína causadas pelas mutações associadas com resistência a organofosforados foram discutidas. No gene da acetilcolinesterase somente 2 de 135 indivíduos analisados apresentaram uma das mutações investigadas, a F466Y, o que pode estar associado ao alto custo no valor adaptativo do indivíduo, causado por algumas mutações neste gene ou inexistência dos demais alelos mutantes nestas populações. Entretanto, para a mutação G137D no gene da E3 foi encontrado um alto número de indivíduos portadores de pelo menos um alelo mutante na maioria das populações brasileiras e no Uruguai. Em Cuba, Venezuela e Colômbia nenhum indivíduo mutante para G137D foi encontrado, o que pode estar relacionado com os inseticidas usados no controle de C. hominivorax nestas regiões ou com a inexistência do alelo mutante nestas localidades. Os resultados de ambos os trabalhos indicam que mutações no gene da carboxilesterase E3 são um dos principais mecanismos de resistência selecionados nesta espécie, dentre os investigados até o momento. Este estudo representa um importante avanço no entendimento da base molecular da resistência a inseticidas em um importante ectoparasita. / Abstract: Cochliomyia hominivorax is an important ectoparasite, causing considerable economic losses to livestock sector in Neotropical region. This ectoparasite has been controlled mainly by applying insecticides, however, this method usually results in the selection of resistant individuals. In this thesis, mechanisms associated with organophosphate and pyrethroid insecticide resistance were investigated. The results presented in this thesis are divided in two articles. In the Article 1 two mechanisms associated with pyrethroid resistance were investigated, the kdr (knockdown resistance), a generic term for mutations in the sodium channel, and a mutation in the residue 251 of the carboxylesterase E3 gene, which have been associated with pyrethroid hydrolysis. Populations of actual geographical distribution of C. hominivorax were investigated through PCR-RFLP. For the kdr mutation, no mutant individuals were found. However, the W251S mutation was found in all populations investigated, with the highest frequencies in the samples from Colombia (100%) and Venezuela (93.75%). In some populations, despite relatively low mutant allele frequency, the number of individuals having at least one mutant allele was high. A bioassay with cypermethrin (pirethroid type II) was also performed, using samples from Estiva (MG). The results of the Fisher's exact test for the lowest concentration (p=0.0003, a= 0.05) and for an intermediate concentration (p= 0.024, a= 0.05) indicated that the presence of W251S mutation are correlated with the survival. However, at the highest concentration, Fisher's exact test (p= 0.221, a= 0.05) indicated that the presence of this mutation was not correlated with survival. These results indicate that the W251S mutation in C. hominivorax probably presents difficulties in hydrolyzing of this kind of pyrethroid, in high concentrations. In the Article 2, the G137D mutation, in the carboxylesterase E3 gene, and the I298V, G401A and F466Y mutations in the acetylcholinesterase gene, associated with organophosphate resistance, were investigated. The same populations of article 1 were analyzed using PCR-RFLP and PCR direct sequencing. The complete coding region of acetylcholineserase also was characterized and a putative model for the three-dimensional structure of this protein was proposed, based on solved structure of Drosophila melanogaster. Possible alterations in the protein, caused by mutations associated with organophosphate resistance, were discussed. For the acetylcholinesterase gene, only 2 of 135 individuals analyzed presented one of the mutations investigated, the F466Y. This fact may be related with the fitness cost of some mutations in this gene, or the inexistence of mutant alleles in these populations. For the G137D mutation, a high number of individuals having at least one mutant allele were found in most of the Brazilian populations and in Uruguay. In Cuba, Venezuela and Colombia no G137D mutant was found, a finding that may be related to the insecticides used for C. hominivorax control in these regions. The results of these two works indicate that mutations in the carboxylesterase E3 gene are one of the main insecticide resistance mechanisms selected in this species, so far investigated. This study represents a significant advance in the understanding of the molecular basis of insecticide resistance in an important livestock ectoparasite. / Doutorado / Genetica Animal e Evolução / Doutor em Genetica e Biologia Molecular

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Increased electrical activity in peripheral sensory neurons contributes to pain. A unique type of sodium current, fast resurgent current, is proposed to increase nerve activity and has been associated with pain pathologies. While sodium channel isoform Nav1.6 has been identified as the main carrier of fast resurgent currents, our understanding of how resurgent currents are modulated in sensory neurons is fairly limited. Thus the goal of this dissertation was to identify resurgent current modulators. In particular, we focused on sodium channel beta subunits (Navβs) and fibroblast growth factor homologous factors (FHFs) in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons. We hypothesized that Navβ4 and FHF2B act as positive regulators by mediating resurgent currents and modulating Nav1.6 inactivation, respectively. In contrast, we hypothesized FHF2A negatively regulates resurgent current by increasing the probability of channels in inactivated states. Thus, the aims of this dissertation were to 1) determine if Navβ4 regulates fast resurgent currents in DRG neurons, 2) examine the effects of Navβ4 knockdown on resurgent currents, firing frequency and pain associated behavior in an inflammatory pain model and 3) determine if FHF2A and FHF2B functionally regulate Nav1.6 currents, including resurgent currents in DRG neurons. To examine the aims, we used biochemical, electrophysiological and behavioral assays. Our results suggest that Navβ4 is a positive regulator of resurgent currents: in particular, the C-terminus likely mediates these currents. Localized knockdown of Navβ4 decreased inflammation-induced enhancement of resurgent currents and neuronal excitability, and prevented the development of persistent pain associated behavior in an inflammatory pain model. FHF2B increased resurgent currents and delayed inactivation. In contrast, FHF2A limited resurgent currents; an effect that is mainly contributed by FHF2A's N-terminus activity that increased accumulation of channels in inactivated states. Interestingly, in an inflammatory pain model FHF2B was upregulated and FHFA isoforms were downregulated. Together these results suggest that FHF2A/B modulation might contribute to enhanced resurgent currents and increased neuronal excitability observed in the inflammatory pain model. Overall, our work has identified three resurgent current modulators FHF2A, FHF2B and Navβ4. Manipulation of these proteins or their activity might result in novel strategies for the study and treatment of pain.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSCs) are dynamic membrane-spanning proteins crucial for determining the electrical excitability in nerve and muscle. VGSCs transition, or gate, between opened, closed, and inactivated states, in response to changes in transmembrane potential. Altered VGSC gating can affect electrical communication and is implicated in numerous channelopathies. Nav1.7, a VGSC isoform highly expressed in the peripheral nervous system, plays a unique role in pain perception as evidenced by single point missense mutations causing a spectrum of pain syndromes (inherited erythromelalgia; IEM and paroxysmal extreme pain disorder; PEPD) and nonsense mutations resulting in human insensitivity to pain (CIP). These studies indicate Nav1.7 is critical in pain transduction and, as such, structural perturbations to Nav1.7 affecting conformational stability and response to changes in transmembrane potential have the potential to cause pain. Therefore, the aims of this dissertation were to (1) examine the effects of PEPD mutations on the voltage-dependent properties Nav1.7; (2) investigate the effects Nav1.7 alternative splicing has on the impact of IEM and PEPD mutations; (3) evaluate the effects channelopathies, resulting from slowed inactivation, have on modulating an unusual type of sodium current that flows during membrane repolarization; and (4) determine the structural components involved in stabilizing Nav1.7 inactivation. Standard patch-clamp electrophysiology was used to study changes in channel properties. Results from this dissertation demonstrate that (1) PEPD mutations significantly shift the voltage-dependent properties of Nav1.7 channels, destabilize an inactivated state in a residue specific manner, and render nociceptive neurons hyperexcitable; (2) alternative splicing can functionally impact PEPD; (3) channelopathies, resulting from slowed inactivation in neuronal and muscle VGSC isoforms, increase an unusual sodium conductance that flows during repolarization; and (4) specific residues located in distinct regions of Nav1.7 serve as docking sites to stabilize inactivation at different membrane potentials. Overall, this dissertation answers key questions regarding the molecular mechanics required during inactivation and the biophysical consequences of Nav1.7 mutations implicated in painful disorders. The results of this dissertation are important for a more detailed understanding of pain perception and validate the applicability of studying Nav1.7 for discovery of therapeutic targets for treatment of pain. – Theodore R. Cummins, Chair