This thesis reports exploratory studies on the synthesis and characterisation of new compounds as cathode materials for second generation sodium batteries, with a particular emphasis on preparing new iron-phosphite and molybdenum oxyfluoride cathode materials. Seven different compounds are hereby reported: the sodium iron fluoro-phosphite of formula NaFe₃(HPO₃)₂[(H,F)PO₂OH)₆], the iron-phosphite Fe₂(HPO₃)₃, the sodium iron-phosphite NaFe(H₂PO₃)₄, the sodium iron phosphate NaFe(HPO₄)(H₂PO₄)₂·H₂O and three molybdenum oxyfluoride compounds of formula Na₂MoO₂F₄, KNaMoO₂F₄ and KMoO₂F₃. The synthesis of these compounds was performed by hydrothermal and solvothermal methods at temperatures ranging from 100 °C to 160 °C. The compounds were then fully characterised using the following techniques: single crystal X-ray diffraction (SXD), powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), elemental analysis (EA), infrared spectroscopy (IR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and electrochemical testing. Magnetic properties have also been studied where appropriate.

abstract: This thesis focused on physicochemical and electrochemical projects directed towards two electrolyte types: 1) class of ionic liquids serving as electrolytes in the catholyte for alkali-metal ion conduction in batteries and 2) gel membrane for proton conduction in fuel cells; where overall aims were encouraged by the U.S. Department of Energy. Large-scale, sodium-ion batteries are seen as global solutions to providing undisrupted electricity from sustainable, but power-fluctuating, energy production in the near future. Foreseen ideal advantages are lower cost without sacrifice of desired high-energy densities relative to present lithium-ion and lead-acid battery systems. Na/NiCl2 (ZEBRA) and Na/S battery chemistries, suffer from high operation temperature (>300ºC) and safety concerns following major fires consequent of fuel mixing after cell-separator rupturing. Initial interest was utilizing low-melting organic ionic liquid, [EMI+][AlCl4-], with well-known molten salt, NaAlCl4, to create a low-to-moderate operating temperature version of ZEBRA batteries; which have been subject of prior sodium battery research spanning decades. Isothermal conductivities of these electrolytes revealed a fundamental kinetic problem arisen from "alkali cation-trapping effect" yet relived by heat-ramping >140ºC. Battery testing based on [EMI+][FeCl4-] with NaAlCl4 functioned exceptional (range 150-180ºC) at an impressive energy efficiency >96%. Newly prepared inorganic ionic liquid, [PBr4+][Al2Br7-]:NaAl2Br7, melted at 94ºC. NaAl2Br7 exhibited super-ionic conductivity 10-1.75 Scm-1 at 62ºC ensued by solid-state rotator phase transition. Also improved thermal stability when tested to 265ºC and less expensive chemical synthesis. [PBr4+][Al2Br7-] demonstrated remarkable, ionic decoupling in the liquid-state due to incomplete bromide-ion transfer depicted in NMR measurements. Fuel cells are electrochemical devices generating electrical energy reacting hydrogen/oxygen gases producing water vapor. Principle advantage is high-energy efficiency of up to 70% in contrast to an internal combustion engine <40%. Nafion-based fuel cells are prone to carbon monoxide catalytic poisoning and polymer membrane degradation unless heavily hydrated under cell-pressurization. This novel "SiPOH" solid-electrolytic gel (originally liquid-state) operated in the fuel cell at 121oC yielding current and power densities high as 731mAcm-2 and 345mWcm-2, respectively. Enhanced proton conduction significantly increased H2 fuel efficiency to 89.7% utilizing only 3.1mlmin-1 under dry, unpressurized testing conditions. All these energy devices aforementioned evidently have future promise; therefore in early developmental stages. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Chemistry 2014

Les futures générations de microbatteries devant fonctionner à des tensions plus faibles, ces travaux sont dédiés à l’étude de matériaux d’électrodes en couche mince pour accumulateurs au Na et Na-ion pouvant répondre à ce nouveau cahier des charges. Ce manuscrit décrit ainsi le choix, l’élaboration et la caractérisation de matériaux d’électrode massifs et en couches minces. Les matériaux présentés ont été sélectionnés pour leur potentiel de fonctionnement et du mécanisme régissant l’insertion des ions alcalins. Pour chaque matériau, notre démarche a impliqué l’élaboration d’une cible permettant le dépôt par pulvérisation cathodique magnétron RF. Les différents paramètres de dépôt ont été optimisés pour obtenir les propriétés physico-chimiques et électrochimiques désirées et dresser une comparaison entre la configuration massive et en couche mince. L’étude du Fe2(MoO4)3 montre les différences de mécanismes selon l’ion alcalin employé. Le bismuth (mécanisme d’alliage), étudié en couches minces, nous a permis d’élucider des réactions électrolytiques parasites ; nos travaux s’attardant également sur les composés NaBi et Na3Bi. Enfin, cette thèse présente 2 sulfures, le matériau « de conversion » FeS2 et un nouveau matériau lamellaire : le Na2TiS3. / As the next generations of microbatteries are expected to power microelectronics devices working at lower voltages, we address the elaboration and characterization of electrode materials for sodium microbatteries. The described materials were selected according to several criterions including their working potentials and insertion mechanisms. For each material, the deposition of thin films was performed using RF magnetron sputtering, the deposition parameters being optimised in order to reach the targeted properties and to highlight the special features of thin film electrodes. The study of the intercalation compound Fe2(MoO4)3 shows the differences in mechanism between Li and Na insertion; while the alloying compound Bi undergoes parasitic electrolytic reactions. Our work also addresses two sulphides: the conversion compound FeS2 and the new layered material Na2TiS3.