Student Number : 0418388R - MSc(Eng) research report - School of Electrical and Information Engineering - Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment / Due to the high soil resistivities and high frequency of lightning strikes in South Africa, the background theory about the effect of soil resistivity on the LV surge environment is important, but the present local and international standards do not give reasonable explanations for this effect. The previously published experimental results and research results related to this effect were investigated. From these investigations, it can be shown that the soil resistivity can affect surge generation, surge propagation and surge attenuation significantly. Also, soil resistivity plays a main role in the lightning surges caused by both direct strikes and indirect strikes, which can cause severe damage to the LV distribution system. Soil resistivity also has a significant impact on the resistance of an earth electrode.

This master’s thesis deals with the measurement of the electrical soil resistivity. In the theoretical part there are described the methods by which the soil resistivity is measured – especially the Wenner’s method, which was used for the practical measurements. Then there is also described the one-layered and the two-layered model of this method. Furthermore, there is described the procedure for the measurement of soil resistivity using the OMICRON CPC 100 and PU 193 instruments used in the measurement. To verify the modeling of a two-layered soil model, the theoretical part of the thesis describes the soil modeling process using the program Ansys. As for the practical part of the thesis, the measurements were carried out in three localities: Brno – Královo Pole; Hrušovany nad Jevišovkou – Pravice; Hustopeče nad Bečvou – Vysoká. The measured values were processed using the Matlab’s graphical user interface (GUI) that was developed within this thesis. From these values, at least one two-layered soil model was created for each location and both meters – a total of 12 models were created. For these models, measurements were simulated in Ansys. The results of the simulations were then compared with the measured values. The aim of this thesis is to compare the measured data with the data obtained by the simulations and subsequently to describe the suitability / unsuitability of the substitution of the one-layered soil model for the two-layered one for given measurements.

Diploma thesis is oriented on measuring and evaluation of grounding conditions of HV pylons. In theoretical part is described theory of grounding including related legislation, impact of electric current on human body, methods of measuring earth resistance, soil resitivity and description of available measurers. Practical part is focused on measuring earth resistance of selected pylons and measuring procedures followed by evaluation of measurements according to person's safety from dangerous touch voltage and impact of lightings. For evauluation of measured data is created supporting tool in MS Excel. In the last part of thesis are described recommendations for cutting-down touch voltages.

O aterramento elétrico cumpre uma função essencial em um sistema de distribuição de energia elétrica, devendo atender, dentre vários requisitos, aqueles estabelecidos quanto aos valores de tensão de passo e de toque. Entretanto, em locais onde o solo apresenta valores elevados de resistividade, surgem dificuldades que nem sempre são superadas no sentido de obedecer às exigências citadas nas normas técnicas e especificações. Dentro deste contexto, este trabalho tem por objetivo avaliar a utilização de condutores e hastes envolvidos em concreto em sistemas de aterramento, visando à redução dos valores de resistência de terra. Inicialmente é abordada uma configuração convencional de malha de aterramento adotada por uma concessionária de energia elétrica, sendo realizados estudos de modo a verificar a influência do espaçamento e da quantidade das hastes nos valores de resistência de terra. São também consideradas modificações nas dimensões da malha e a utilização de hastes profundas e, na seqüência, são analisados os resultados de outras configurações. De modo a verificar a efetividade do uso do concreto, foram realizadas várias simulações computacionais considerando o sistema de aterramento com a utilização de condutores e hastes envolvidos em concreto. Diversas situações foram investigadas, sendo possível concluir que o uso do concreto resulta em menores valores de resistência de terra em relação às malhas convencionais. Esse resultado, de certo modo, vem ao encontro das expectativas, porém deve ser ressaltada a contribuição do trabalho, a qual possibilita a análise, através de cálculos teóricos, do comportamento das malhas de aterramento com o uso do concreto. A literatura pesquisada apresenta poucos resultados teóricos, sendo encontradas algumas investigações nesse tema onde são consideradas somente medições realizadas no campo. / The electrical grounding plays an essential role in a system of electric power distribution, and must follow, among many requirements, those ones established as step voltage values and touch voltage values. However, in those places where the soil has high resistivity values, some difficulties arise and may not always be overcomed in order to follow the requirements set forth in technical standards and specifications. In this context, the aim of this study is to evaluate the use of electrical conductors and rods encased in concrete inside grounding systems, in order to reduce the ground resistance values. Initially it was observed a conventional configuration of grounding grid that is used by an electric utility, and studies were made in order to verify the influence of the number of rods and the distance between them in the values of grounding resistance. There are also been taken into consideration the changes in the grounding grid dimensions and the use of deep rods and, right after, the results of other configurations are analyzed. In order to verify the effectiveness of the use of concrete, several computer simulations were performed considering the grounding system that used conductors and rods encased in concrete. Several situations were investigated, and it was possible to conclude that the use of concrete results in lower values of ground resistance compared to conventional grounding grid. This result, in a certain way, matches with the expectations, but it should be emphasized the contribution of the study which enables, through theoretical calculations, the analysis of the grounding grid behavior with the use of concrete. The literature shows few theoretical results and presents only some researches on this issue in which ones only measurements made in the field are considered.

O aterramento elétrico cumpre uma função essencial em um sistema de distribuição de energia elétrica, devendo atender, dentre vários requisitos, aqueles estabelecidos quanto aos valores de tensão de passo e de toque. Entretanto, em locais onde o solo apresenta valores elevados de resistividade, surgem dificuldades que nem sempre são superadas no sentido de obedecer às exigências citadas nas normas técnicas e especificações. Dentro deste contexto, este trabalho tem por objetivo avaliar a utilização de condutores e hastes envolvidos em concreto em sistemas de aterramento, visando à redução dos valores de resistência de terra. Inicialmente é abordada uma configuração convencional de malha de aterramento adotada por uma concessionária de energia elétrica, sendo realizados estudos de modo a verificar a influência do espaçamento e da quantidade das hastes nos valores de resistência de terra. São também consideradas modificações nas dimensões da malha e a utilização de hastes profundas e, na seqüência, são analisados os resultados de outras configurações. De modo a verificar a efetividade do uso do concreto, foram realizadas várias simulações computacionais considerando o sistema de aterramento com a utilização de condutores e hastes envolvidos em concreto. Diversas situações foram investigadas, sendo possível concluir que o uso do concreto resulta em menores valores de resistência de terra em relação às malhas convencionais. Esse resultado, de certo modo, vem ao encontro das expectativas, porém deve ser ressaltada a contribuição do trabalho, a qual possibilita a análise, através de cálculos teóricos, do comportamento das malhas de aterramento com o uso do concreto. A literatura pesquisada apresenta poucos resultados teóricos, sendo encontradas algumas investigações nesse tema onde são consideradas somente medições realizadas no campo. / The electrical grounding plays an essential role in a system of electric power distribution, and must follow, among many requirements, those ones established as step voltage values and touch voltage values. However, in those places where the soil has high resistivity values, some difficulties arise and may not always be overcomed in order to follow the requirements set forth in technical standards and specifications. In this context, the aim of this study is to evaluate the use of electrical conductors and rods encased in concrete inside grounding systems, in order to reduce the ground resistance values. Initially it was observed a conventional configuration of grounding grid that is used by an electric utility, and studies were made in order to verify the influence of the number of rods and the distance between them in the values of grounding resistance. There are also been taken into consideration the changes in the grounding grid dimensions and the use of deep rods and, right after, the results of other configurations are analyzed. In order to verify the effectiveness of the use of concrete, several computer simulations were performed considering the grounding system that used conductors and rods encased in concrete. Several situations were investigated, and it was possible to conclude that the use of concrete results in lower values of ground resistance compared to conventional grounding grid. This result, in a certain way, matches with the expectations, but it should be emphasized the contribution of the study which enables, through theoretical calculations, the analysis of the grounding grid behavior with the use of concrete. The literature shows few theoretical results and presents only some researches on this issue in which ones only measurements made in the field are considered.

Submitted by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2016-12-27T10:56:51Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Fernando Moreira Viana - 2016.pdf: 6105282 bytes, checksum: 6822f2ad13c8ed286d41535c02c26b87 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2016-12-27T10:57:33Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Fernando Moreira Viana - 2016.pdf: 6105282 bytes, checksum: 6822f2ad13c8ed286d41535c02c26b87 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-12-27T10:57:33Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Fernando Moreira Viana - 2016.pdf: 6105282 bytes, checksum: 6822f2ad13c8ed286d41535c02c26b87 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-11-29 / This work proposes a methodology for interpretation of soil resistivity measurements obtained using the arrangement of four electrodesWenner, Schlumberger and Schlumberger-Palmer. Displays can be compared apparent resistivity curves when the quantity used in the abscissa is the effective depth of investigation. This magnitude that depends on the geometry of the electrodes, namely the positioning of both current electrodes and the potential electrodes. The work also features in an innovative way, an algorithm for soil stratification from resistivity measurements obtained with the Schlumberger arrangement. The same is based on the method of complex images and propose a finite number of complex exponentials to represent the kernel function. Several simulations are performed, proving the efficiency and effectiveness of the proposed algorithm. / Este trabalho propõe uma metodologia para interpretação de medições de resistividade do solo obtidas utilizando os arranjos de quatro eletrodos de Wenner, Schlumberger e Schlumberger-Palmer. Mostra ser possível comparar curvas de resistividade aparente quando a grandeza utilizada no eixo das abscissas é a profundidade efetiva de investigação. Grandeza esta que depende da geometria dos eletrodos, ou seja, do posicionamento tanto dos eletrodos de corrente como dos eletrodos de potencial. O trabalho apresenta também, de forma inovadora, um algoritmo para estratificação do solo a partir de medições de resistividade obtidas com o arranjo de Schlumberger. O mesmo baseia-se no método das imagens complexas e na proposição de uma série finita de exponenciais complexas para representar a função kernel. Simulações diversas são realizadas, comprovando a eficiência e a eficácia do algoritmo proposto.

The present thesis deals with soil resistivity and especially the suitability of replacing various soil models with a two-layer horizontal model. First, the factors that influence soil resistivity as well as the methodology of its measuring are described, and various soil models are introduced. Then, the Ansys program was used to create several soil models: a vertical model with perpendicular or oblique division, a model with a pronounced inhomogeneity and a three-layer model. In all of these models, a Wenner measurement simulation was performed, followed by a two-layer horizontal replacement model. Then the size of the error that was created by replacing the actual model with a two-layer horizontal model was examined.

Οι γειώσεις διαδραματίζουν πρωτεύοντα ρόλο στην προστασία οποιασδήποτε εγκατάστασης, είτε πρόκειται για ηλεκτρικές εγκαταστάσεις ισχύος, είτε για τηλεπικοινωνίες, είτε για αντικεραυνική προστασία. Σκοπός του συστήματος γείωσης είναι η ταχεία διάχυση του κεραυνικού ρεύματος ή γενικότερα του ρεύματος σφάλματος μέσα στη γη, χωρίς να δημιουργούνται επικίνδυνες υπερτάσεις στον περιβάλλοντα χώρο, τόσο για τους ανθρώπους όσο και για τον ηλεκτρολογικό και ηλεκτρονικό εξοπλισμό. Για να είναι ένα σύστημα γείωσης αποδοτικό, θα πρέπει η αντίσταση γείωσής του να έχει πολύ χαμηλή τιμή ούτως ώστε να διασφαλίζεται η απρόσκοπτη διέλευση του ρεύματος προς τη γη. Για να επιτευχθεί μια τέτοια χαμηλή τιμή, λαμβάνοντας υπόψη ότι δεν είναι δυνατόν να επιλέγουμε πάντα το μέρος όπου θα εγκατασταθεί το σύστημα γείωσης με γνώμονα τη χαμηλή ειδική αντίστασή του, μπορούμε να προβούμε σε αύξηση των διαστάσεων του ηλεκτροδίου γείωσης (μήκος και διάμετρος), σε εγκατάσταση περισσοτέρων του ενός ηλεκτροδίων και τέλος σε προσθήκη βελτιωτικού υλικού (μη συμβατική γείωση) το οποίο μειώνει την ειδική αντίσταση του εδάφους γύρω απ’ το ηλεκτρόδιο. Η τελευταία επιλογή είναι ιδιαίτερα δημοφιλής σε εδάφη με πολύ υψηλές τιμές ειδικής αντίστασης ή και με αυξημένο κίνδυνο διάβρωσης του ηλεκτροδίου. Στα πλαίσια της παρούσας διπλωματικής εργασίας, προσομοιώθηκαν διάφορα συστήματα γείωσης, συμβατικά και μη, με διαφορετικά μήκη και αριθμούς ηλεκτροδίων, σε ομοιογενή και πολυστρωματικά εδάφη με διαφορετικές ειδικές αντιστάσεις, διαφορετικές εγχύσεις ρεύματος και με ή χωρίς χρήση βελτιωτικού, με σκοπό τη μελέτη της επίδρασης κάθε παράγοντα στην τελική διαμόρφωση της αντίστασης γείωσης και των αναπτυσσόμενων τάσεων/ηλεκτρικών πεδίων. Ιδιαίτερη έμφαση δόθηκε στα μη συμβατικά συστήματα και στη σύγκριση της απόδοσής τους με την απόδοση των αντίστοιχων συμβατικών. Όλες οι προσομοιώσεις πραγματοποιήθηκαν στο πρόγραμμα Opera-3d που χρησιμοποιεί τη Μέθοδο Πεπερασμένων Στοιχείων για τον υπολογισμό των ηλεκτρομαγνητικών πεδίων και ακολούθως, των λοιπών σχετικών μεγεθών. Ακολουθεί μια σύντομη περιγραφή των θεμάτων που πραγματεύεται το κάθε κεφάλαιο. Στο Κεφάλαιο 1 γίνεται εισαγωγή στην έννοια των γειώσεων, αναφέρονται τα είδη και οι μέθοδοι γείωσης καθώς επίσης και οι διάφοροι τύποι των ηλεκτροδίων γείωσης και οι διατάξεις τοποθέτησής των. Στο Κεφάλαιο 2 παρουσιάζονται ορισμένα χαρακτηριστικά μεγέθη των συστημάτων γείωσης: η αντίσταση γείωσης, που αποτελεί μέτρο της απόδοσής τους και η ειδική αντίσταση του εδάφους που τα περιβάλλει. Γίνεται αναφορά τόσο στο θεωρητικό υπολογισμό όσο και στην πειραματική τους μέτρηση. Στο Κεφάλαιο 3 γίνεται αναφορά στα βελτιωτικά υλικά γειώσεων και στα διάφορα υλικά που έχουν χρησιμοποιηθεί κατά καιρούς γι’ αυτό το σκοπό. Στο Κεφάλαιο 4 γίνεται αναφορά στις διάφορες μεθόδους υπολογισμού πεδιακών μεγεθών. Ιδιαίτερη έμφαση δίνεται στη Μέθοδο των Πεπερασμένων Στοιχείων μιας και αυτή χρησιμοποιήθηκε στα πλαίσια της διπλωματικής. Στο Κεφάλαιο 5 παρουσιάζεται το πρόγραμμα Opera-3d, στο οποίο πραγματοποιήθηκαν οι προσομοιώσεις, καθώς και τα ποικίλα πακέτα ανάλυσης που χρησιμοποιεί. Γίνεται επίσης αναφορά στις εξισώσεις και τον αλγόριθμο που χρησιμοποιεί για τον υπολογισμό των ηλεκτρομαγνητικών μεγεθών του εκάστοτε προβλήματος. Στο Κεφάλαιο 6 περιγράφονται αναλυτικά οι διατάξεις των συστημάτων γείωσης που προσομοιώθηκαν και τα μοντέλα πεπερασμένων στοιχείων που δημιουργήθηκαν. Παράλληλα, παρουσιάζονται τα γραφήματα και τα αποτελέσματα που προέκυψαν σε κάθε περίπτωση. Τέλος, γίνεται αναφορά στη μετεπεξεργασία των αποτελεσμάτων, με σκοπό τον υπολογισμό της αντίστασης γείωσης, αλλά και στο θεωρητικό υπολογισμό της τελευταίας. Δίνεται μάλιστα και μία επέκταση του τύπου του Fagan [16] για την περίπτωση διστρωματικού εδάφους στο οποίο έχει γίνει προσθήκη βελτιωτικού. Στο Κεφάλαιο 7 γίνεται σχολιασμός των αποτελεσμάτων και καταγραφή διαφόρων χρήσιμων συμπερασμάτων. Τα αποτελέσματα επιδεικνύουν αφενός την τεράστια επίδραση που ασκεί το περιβάλλον έδαφος στην αντίσταση γείωσης ενός συστήματος και αφετέρου τη βελτίωση που επιτυγχάνεται απ’ το διπλασιασμό του μήκους του ηλεκτροδίου (μείωση αντίστασης γείωσης έως και 36,7%), την τοποθέτηση βελτιωτικού γύρω απ’ αυτό (μείωση έως και 68,3%) καθώς και την προσθήκη πλέον του ενός ηλεκτροδίων σε κατάλληλη μεταξύ τους απόσταση (μείωση 29,2% για δύο ηλεκτρόδια σε απόσταση τετραπλάσια του μήκους τους). Επίσης, προκύπτει ότι οι μη συμβατικές γειώσεις με βελτιωτικά προκαλούν πιο ομαλή μείωση του δυναμικού, περιορίζοντας έτσι τις αναπτυσσόμενες βηματικές τάσεις και τάσεις επαφής. Τέλος, προτείνεται ένας θεωρητικός τρόπος υπολογισμού της αντίστασης γείωσης σε περιπτώσεις μη συμβατικών συστημάτων με βελτιωτικά ειδικής αντίστασης ≤1Ωm. / Grounding systems contribute considerably to the protection of constructions (electrical power installations, telecommunications or even lightning protection). The main objective of a grounding system is to quickly dissipate fault current into the ground, without causing dangerous overvoltages in the surrounding area, both for people and electrical or electronic equipment. For a grounding system to be effective, its grounding resistance should be low enough so as to make sure that the fault current is dissipated into the earth without any hindrances. To achieve such a low value, taking into account that it is not always possible to install a grounding system in a low resistivity soil, one could increase the electrode dimensions (its length and diameter), add more electrodes and finally enhance the surrounding ground by using various ground enhancing compounds (conductive backfills – nonconventional grounding). In this way, the surrounding soil resistivity decreases and that’s why this option is commonly used in sites where resistivity is very high or where corrosion constitutes a common threat to the electrode life span. In the context of the present diploma thesis, various grounding systems were simulated, both conventional and nonconventional. The parameters that were modified were: numbers and lengths of electrodes, current injections and homogenous or multilayered soil with different resistivity values and either with or without conductive backfills. The objective was to study the effect of each of the aforementioned parameters on the grounding resistance and the potential/electric field. Special emphasis was given on nonconventional grounding systems and their effectiveness comparing to conventional ones. The simulations were conducted in Opera-3d, a program that calculates electromagnetic fields through the Finite Element Method. A brief description of the issues that are analyzed in each chapter can be found next. Chapter 1 constitutes an introduction to the meaning and role of “grounding”. The reader is then acquainted with the grounding types and methods as well as the various types of electrodes and their set-ups. Chapter 2 focuses on certain typical quantities of grounding systems: namely, the grounding resistance and the surrounding soil resistivity. Chapter 3 provides information on the various ground enhancing compounds. Chapter 4 focuses on the various methods used for the calculation of electromagnetic fields. A more detailed reference to the Finite Element Method is given. Chapter 5 provides information on the Opera-3d program, which was used for the simulations, as well as the various analysis programs that are included. Information are also provided on the equations and the algorithm used by the program in order to calculate the electromagnetic fields. Chapter 6 provides an illustration of the various grounding set-ups which were simulated as well as the corresponding finite element models that were designed. Furthermore, the simulation results and graphs are presented. Last but not least, post-processing takes place in order to calculate the grounding resistance. The latter one is also calculated using theoretical formulas. An expansion of Fagan’s formula [16] is also given in the case of two-layered soil which has been enriched by a conductive backfill. In Chapter 7 the results are discussed and several observations are made. The results demonstrate the great impact the surrounding soil has on the grounding resistance. They also show the improvement which is achieved by doubling the electrode length (decrease of grounding resistance up to 36,7%), adding conductive backfills (decrease up to 68,3%) and installing more than one electrodes at appropriate distances (29,2% decrease in the case of two electrodes at a distance four times their length). Nonconventional grounding systems with conductive backfills are found to cause a smoother potential reduction, thus minimizing the step and touch voltages. Finally, a theoretical way of calculating the grounding resistance in nonconventional grounding systems with backfill resistivity ≤1Ωm is proposed.

The vadose zone is the unsaturated zone between the ground surface and water table. This zone is of much importance as it acts as a link between surface water and ground water. Knowledge of soil moisture in this zone is very much essential to understand the meteorologic, hydrologic and agronomic process. Flow and transport in the unsaturated zone are more complex compared to saturated medium, as the pores in unsaturated zone are partly filled by air and partly by water. Most of vadose zone studies are done on agricultural plots where anthropogenic activities govern the vadose zone flows. Vadose zone studies in natural pristine conditions such as in forested areas where no anthropogenic activities are present are very limited that too in Indian conditions are rare. The present research work deals with understanding of the flow behavior in the vadose zone in a small experimental forested watershed called Mule Hole. Mule Hole watershed is 4.5 km2 and located in Bandipur National Park in Chamrajnagar District of Karnataka state, in the southern part of India. The forest is of deciduous type with 3 to 4 months of leafless dry period. The watershed has mean annual 25 years rainfall of 1120 mm and mean yearly temperature is 27o. The rainfall pattern is bimodal i.e. it receives rainfall during South West Monsoon (June -September) and North East Monsoon (October – December) with dominant rainfall occurring during South West Monsoon. Human activity is minimal as watershed is a part of Bandipur National Park, dedicated to wildlife and biodiversity preservation. The watershed consists of around 80 % of red soils, and black soil and saprolite covering the rest. The first part of the study involves soil moisture measurements by neutron probe and electrical resistivity measurements by geophysical method and their linking, i.e. developing volumetric soil moisture vs electrical resistivity relationship. The second part of the study involves application of neutron probe soil moisture measurement in identifying relationship between soil and erosion in the watershed. The third part involves development of two dimensional (2D) vadose zone model for watershed and validating it with measured data. The last part involves development of three dimensional model of watershed and validating it with observed data. Vadose zone is briefly described in chapter 1 along with its governing equations. Different soil moisture measurement techniques including invasive and non – invasive ones are also discussed. Different vadose zone modeling software which are public domain as well as commercial ones are also discussed. The chapter ends with organization of this thesis. Chapter 2 reviews relevant literature related to this study with focus on soil moisture measurement techniques and vadose zone flow modeling. Different soil moisture measurement techniques, their applications and limitations are reviewed. In the soil moisture measurement techniques, invasive and non – invasive types are reviewed. In the modeling part, different vadose zone models for 2D and 3D flow along with its applications and limitations are reviewed. Also a brief review about application of HYDRUS 2D/3D model is done which is used for the vadose zone modeling in this thesis. Chapter 3 introduces study area Mule Hole watershed, which is a forested watershed located in Bandipur National Park, Karnataka. India. The watershed has mean annual 25 years rainfall of 1120 mm and mean yearly temperature is 27o. The watershed has average regolith thickness or vadose zone of 17 m with roots of the trees able to penetrate up to groundwater. A toposequence T1 is identified in the watershed which has red soil – black soil confluence where soil moisture measurements and electrical resistivity measurements are carried out. The toposequence consists of 8 layers with organic layer forming the top layer followed by 3 red soil layer with 2 black soil layers intruding from stream into red soil layers and sandy weathered horizon at base of red and black soil. Also a sandy horizon at the top of black soil. Soil moisture measurements with neutron probe and electrical resistivity measurements with electrical logging tool which are done on toposequence periodically for two years are explained and the data are presented in this chapter. These data are used for validation of vadose zone models. Chapter 4 discusses in detail about comparison of electrical resistivity by geophysical method and neutron probe logging for soil moisture monitoring in a forested watershed. The electrical resistivity data and soil moisture data are compared for different soils and existence of relationship between them are studied and discussed in this chapter. For the red soil, existence of relationship between volumetric soil moisture content and electrical resistivity is found. Chapter 5 discusses soil moisture measurements as a tool to study erosion processes in forested watershed. Hydrodynamic behavior of the red soil – black soil system at toposequence T1 is studied using neutron probe soil moisture measurements. Two distinctive types of erosional landforms have been identified at T1 viz, rotational slips (Type 1); seepage erosion (Type 2),which are highlighted by neutron probe soil moisture measurements. Based on the observations relative chronology of formulation of different soil horizons are studied, which guided in developing four-stage model showing the relative chronology in the recent formation of the soil cover at downslope. Chapter 6 discusses application of 2D vadose zone modeling using HYDRUS – 2D model at two experimental sites in forested watershed where soil moisture monitoring and groundwater monitoring have been conducted. At the first site, which is toposequence T1 in the forested watershed, where soil moisture measurements are done, three case studies for comparison of daily scale data with hourly scale data and effects of internal layering by clubbing red soil layers and black soil layers to equivalent red soil and black soil layers respectively are performed. The model is run for two years. In that, first year results are used for calibrating the model where measured soil moisture content data are used to get soil hydraulic parameters for all the three cases by inverse modeling using Marquardt – Levenberg algorithm which is a part of HYDRUS 2D. The parameters thus obtained fall under particular soil range and performed efficiently in predicting soil moisture content. The second year results of model run is used for validation of the model in all the three cases where simulated soil moisture content is compared with measured soil moisture content. It is found that model is performing well and match between measured and simulated soil moisture contents is good in all the three cases. It can be said that having hourly scale data with detailed layering information is always advantageous in modeling soil moisture content. But, in absence of hourly scale data or finer scale data and absence of detailed layering information, the soil moisture model can also perform well. The scale of data and detailed layering information has minimal effect on soil moisture modeling. At the second site ERT profile near the watershed outlet has five monitoring wells are available and all layering information regarding regolith and hard rock layer distribution profiles. The soil hydraulic parameters obtained at toposequence T1 for soil and sandy weathered horizon are used and tested at this site to simulate the groundwater levels. The parameter for rock layer is estimated by testing different hydraulic parameters from HYDRUS database. The results are validated using observed groundwater levels at the site. The results show significant match between observed and simulated groundwater levels. Chapter 7 discusses 3D modeling of Mule Hole forested watershed using HYDRUS – 3D model. A three layer model of Mule Hole along with its topographic details is modeled. The layering information is derived from geophysical study done at 12 Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) profiles distributed in the watershed. The three layers considered are top soil layer followed by sandy weathered layer and bottom rock layer. Anisotropy in hydraulic conductivity, root water uptake and sloping water table are introduced to make the model more realistic. Soil hydraulic parameters obtained during 2D vadose zone modeling of toposequence T1 are used initially for soil and sandy weathered layers and are subsequently tuned to make model more efficient. Different scenarios are considered to test flux as well as constant head boundary conditions and effect of different porosities for rock layer. The model is run for 7 years and model simulations are validated with observed groundwater levels from monitoring wells across the watershed. The result shows good fit between simulated and observed groundwater levels especially for monitoring well which has shallow groundwater level. It is found that porosity in the rock layer is not uniform and there exist different porosities for the rock layer across the watershed. Also the distribution of sandy weathered zone requires improvement. The model is also able to predict ET closer to ET predicted by COMFORT model which was developed earlier. Also the model shows rise in groundwater fluxes as groundwater starts replenishing. Over all, the 3D model of Mule Hole watershed in HYDRUS – 3D worked well with satisfactory results and HYDRUS – 3D can be used for modeling small forested watersheds. Chapter 8 concludes the study and discusses the further scope of the work.

This master's thesis deals with the measurement of grounding systems in HV/LV distribution networks, which includes grounding system of distribution substation and transmission lines. Explores the issue and principles for the measurement of parameters, which are important for the protection of persons and animals in order not to touch exposed conductive part accidentally, protection of electrical machines and equipment against high fault current and dangerous surges while the correct function of the connected electrical equipment is maintained. These parameters include earth potential rise, ground resistance, soil resistivity, touch voltage, step voltage and transferred potential to the LV network. The aim of this work is the preparation, analysis and subsequent evaluation for the real measurement in practice. These earthing-system measurements were carried out at the distribution station and the concrete pole with a section disconnector. Then a numerical model of the grounding system of concrete pole was created in ANSYS. Subsequent evaluation of the results as numerical terms (comparison measurements and simulated results) and evaluation in terms of analytical (measurement results compliance with the standard) including the numerical model of the earthing system is solved in the practical part of the master's thesis.