Com o presente trabalho contribuiu-se para o estudo das composições químicas das estrelas simbióticas do hemisfério sul, muito pouco exploradas na literatura. Apresenta-se um conjunto completo de simbióticas amarelas austrais extraído do catálogo de Belczynski [Belczynski]. Alguns dos objetos analisados não possuem nem sequer dados espectroscópicos na literatura. Obtém-se os dados deste trabalho com o telescópio de 1.6 m do LNA e da base de dados do satélite I.U.E. Calcula-se o avermelhamento a partir das linhas de recombinação do H, aplicando os valores de extinção interestelar obtidos dos espectros no visível aos do U.V. A partir das razões entre as linhas do [OIII] e [NII] e supondo uma temperatura eletrônica de 12 000 K (Nussbaumer [NussbuamerNP]) encontra-se as densidade eletrônicas presentes nas nebulosas dos sistemas simbióticos. Com estes dados, mais os os fluxos das linhas derivam-se as abundâncias químicas das nebulosas dos sistemas simbióticos; C, N, O no U.V. e He, Ar, S, O e N no visível. Comparam-se as abundâncias no visível com as das simbióticas na direção do bojo (Luna [Luna]) e com nebulosas planetárias (Escudero [Escudero]). Nota-se que em geral as simbióticas são mais enriquecidas em N e He do que as planetárias isto ocorre provavelmente porque as progenitoras das estrelas simbióticas são mais massivas do que a das planetárias. No entanto, para elementos como O, Ar e S encontram-se abundâncias muito próximas entre simbióticas e planetárias. Comparam-se também, as abundâncias das simbióticas amarelas desta amostra com a de planetárias do disco extraídas do trabalho de Pottasch [Pottasch84] , cefeidas de Luck e Lambert [Luck], abundâncias das gigantes G,K e M obtidas a partir de Lambert e Ries[Lambert], as anãs G e K de Reddy et al [Reddy], as gigantes M de Smith e Lambert[Smith90], abundâncias das estrelas Ba extraídas de Smith [Smith84], as estrelas mild Ba dos tipos espectrais G8 a K3 de Berdyugina [Berdyugina] , as early R de Dominy [Dominy], estrelas C de Lambert et al [Lambert86] e por fim as estrelas M e S (MS) de Smith & Lambert [Smith90]. Pode-se distinguir dois grupos de simbióticas amarelas a partir dos diagramas C/N-O/N. Um grupo apresenta produtos do ciclo CN e situa-se próximo à curva de baixa metalicidade e metalicidade solar. O outro grupo, encontra-se próximo da curva C/O=1, que consiste de objetos enriquecidos em carbono (Schmid & Nussbaumer[Nussbaumer01]). As estrelas simbióticas amarelas enriquecidas em C não estão univocamente associadas as estrelas Ba ou early R. Estes dois grupos representam as simbióticas amarelas tipo s e d' respectivamente. Por fim, conclui-se que os sistemas simbióticos amarelos analisados neste trabalho confirmam o modelo de que seriam estrelas AGBs iluminadas por alguma fonte quente de radiação. / The present work is a contribution to the study of chemical composition of southern symbiotic stars, scarcely studied in literature. We present a complete set of yellow southern symbiotic stars extracted from Belczynski. Some of the objects analyzed had no spectroscopic data in literature. The data were obtained using 1.6m telescope in LNA, Brazil and the IUE satelite database. The reddening was calculated from Hydrogen recombination lines. From the ratio fluxes of the lines of [OIII] and [NII] and a hypothetical electronic temperature of 12 000K (Nussbaumer) we estimated the eletronic density of the nebulae present in the symbiotic system. With this data plus the fluxes of lines observed we obtained the chemical abundances in symbiotic nebulae; C,N,O in U.V. and He, Ar, S, O and N in visible. The abundances of the yellow symbiotic stars were compared to planetary disc nebulae extracted from Pottasch, cefeids form Luck & Lambert, G, K and M giant abundances from Lambert & Ries, G and K dwarfs from Reddy et. al., M giants from Smith & Lambert, Ba star abundances from Smith, mild Ba stars type G8 and K3 from Berdygina, early R from Dominy, C stars form Lambert et. al. and M and S (MS)stars from Smith & Lambert. We can distinguish two types of yellow symbiotic groups. One group presents CN cycle products and is situated near the low metalicity and solar metalicity curve. The other group is found near the C/O=1 curve that is made of rich carbon objects (Schmid & Nussbaumer).The yellow symbiotic stars enriched in carbon are not univically asociated with Ba or early R stars. These two groups represent respectively the yellow s and d' symbiotics. The yellow symbiotic stars analyzed in this work confirm the model in which they would be AGB stars iluminated by some hot source radiation.

No description available.

Three semi-permanent cloud bands exist in the Southern Hemisphere extending southeastward from the equator, through the tropics, and into the subtropics. The most prominent of these features occurs in the South Pacific and is referred to as the South Pacific Convergence Zone (SPCZ). Similar convergence zones, with less intensity, exist in the South Atlantic (SACZ) and Indian (SICZ) oceans. We attempt to explain the physical mechanisms that promote the diagonal orientation of the SPCZ and the processes that determine the timescales of its variability. It is argued that the slowly varying sea surface temperature patterns produce upper tropospheric wind fields that vary substantially in longitude. Regions where 200 hPa zonal winds decrease with longitude (i.e., negative zonal stretching deformation, or dU/dx<0) reduce the group speed of the eastward propagating synoptic (3-6 day period) Rossby waves and locally increase the wave energy density. Such a region of wave accumulation occurs in the vicinity of the SPCZ, thus providing a physical basis for the diagonal orientation and earlier observations that the zone acts as a "graveyard" of propagating synoptic disturbances. In essence, dU/dx=0 demarks the boundary of the graveyard while regions where dU/dx<0 denote the graveyard itself. Composites of the life cycles of synoptic waves confirm this hypothesis. From the graveyard hypothesis comes a more general theory accounting for the SPCZ's spatial orientation and its longer term variability influenced by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), or alternatively, the changing background SST associated with different phases of ENSO.

Au cours des dernières décennies, l'étude des paléoenvironnements de l’Hemisphere Sud s’est développée avec les informations fournies par l'analyse des carottes de glace polaires et plus récemment à partir des carottes de glace prélevées dans les Andes. Bien que les zones tropicales et subtropicales de l'Amérique du Sud jouent un rôle majeur dans la chimie atmosphérique globale en raison de l’existence de réservoirs importants, les échanges entre l’équateur et les hautes latitudes sud restent encore peu documentés. Même si d’autres archives apportent des informations sur le climat passé, il existe peu de données de la composition atmosphérique des moyennes latitudes de l’Hémisphère Sud, aussi bien en termes de variabilité naturelle que d’impact anthropique.Ce travail est basé sur l'analyse d'une carotte de glace de 122 m extraite d’un site d'altitude en Patagonie (Monte San Valentin 46º 35' S, 73º19' W, 3723 m). Outre l’établissement de profils à haute résolution des ions minéraux et organiques obtenus par chromatographie ionique, nous avons réalisé une étude des précipitations susceptibles d'influencer le site, fournissant ainsi une base pour l'interprétation de l'archive de glace.Ce site se caractérise par l’enregistrement d’événements à caractère marin et continental. Nous avons démontré que, sur ce glacier, les contributions marines primaires et secondaires ne sont pas synchrones et qu’elles sont très probablement sousreprésentées dans le profil en raison de processus d'accumulation. Contrairement au sel de mer, une partie importante des aérosols biogéniques marins est associée à un apport influencé par des contributions continentales diluées. L’apport continental est complexe : il est composé d’événements ponctuels de combustion, de retombées volcaniques et d’émissions par les sols. Il correspond à presque la moitié de la quantité totale de sulfate déposé. Cette contribution importante et omniprésente de sulfate est associée au nitrate et au chlorure, mais mieux cerner son origine nécessiterait des recherches plus poussées. La comparaison de notre archive glaciochimique avec des éruptions volcaniques datées et le début de la colonisation en Patagonie nous a permis de proposer quelques repères pour la datation de la carotte, qui reste à ce jour encore incertaine. Enfin, aucune tendance anthropique claire n’a été décelée à partir de l’évolution du bruit de fond des espèces continentales, excepté l'ammonium, lui pouvant être mis en relation avec l’utilisation croissante d'engrais après les années 1960. / Although tropical and subtropical South America play an important role in atmospheric global and hemispheric chemistry due to the coexistence of big reservoirs with large-scale atmospheric patterns, exchanges between tropics and higher latitudes have remained poorly documented. During the last few decades, the study of past climate and atmospheric composition has benefited greatly by information provided by ice core analysis. In the Southern Hemisphere, a large amount of data is now available from polar ice cores and more recently from ice cores recovered in the Andes. Despite a few studies on climate reconstruction, there is a lack of information on past atmospheric composition in Southern mid-latitudes, in terms of both natural variability and anthropogenic impact. This work is based on the analysis of a 122 m ice core extracted from a high altitude site in the Northern Patagonian Icefield (Monte San Valentin 46º 35'S, 73º19' W, summit at 4032 m.a.s.l., drilling plateau at 3723 m.a.s.l.). Besides high-resolution measurements of mineral and organic ions, a study of the precipitation events likely to influence the site was conducted in order to provide a basis for the interpretation of the ice archive. The selected site registers precipitation events of marine and continental origin. We have demonstrated that marine primary and biogenic contributions are not synchronous and they are very likely underrepresented along the ice archive due to the effect of accumulation processes. Contrary to sea salt, a significant part of marine biogenic aerosol is associated with a complex and diluted continental fingerprint. The continental imprint was studied in terms of background trends and major events involving combustion processes, urban pollution, volcanic and soil emissions. This set of mixed sources is responsible for almost half of the total sulfate input. This important and ubiquitous sulfate concentration is related to that of nitrate and chloride and its understanding in terms of sources and transport needs further research. A comparison of our records with documented volcanic eruptions and Patagonian settlement periods allowed us to propose a few dating horizons, although an accurate dating of the entire core has not been possible so far. Background trends of continental species do not show any trend that can be clearly associated with an anthropogenic influence, except for ammonium, which increases likely in response to fertilizer consumption after ca. 1960.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-03-26T13:50:13Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 texto completo.pdf: 2950242 bytes, checksum: 87a3fed7b278be1081be57b42f6f0be6 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-07-24 / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / The Earth s climate system is influenced by the topography configuration, whose importance is based on the characterization of the dynamic and thermodynamic aspects of the atmosphere and ocean. In this sense, the study aims to investigate the oceanic and atmospheric processes associated with the western Antarctic ice sheet collapse, which occurred 1.080 million years (ka) ago. Thus, two simulations were performed with the coupled climate model SPEEDO: a) the control simulation (CTRL) under current conditions and, b) forced simulation (1080ka), inserting the topography of 1.080 ka ago. Both simulations are conducted in the 2 CO atmospheric concentration of 380 ppmV. In the ocean circulation, the 1080ka simulation results show variations of salinity and temperature in relation to CTRL, at all ocean levels. Forcing contributed to an increase of approximately 1.4 °C and 1.6 °C in the sea surface temperature of the Ross and eastern Antarctic seas, plus the intensification of oceanic heat flux in the South Atlantic Ocean. On the other hand, there was an increase of 20 TW heat flow towards the north Pacific Ocean. These oceanic variations lead to changes in atmospheric circulations. The air temperature in the 1080ka simulation was 6.5 °C higher than CTRL in the Ross Sea region, contrary to the eastern region of Antarctic, where there was a decrease of 4.5 °C. In the precipitation field, there were an increase of approximately 160 mm/year in the Antarctic Peninsula and a decrease near 80 mm/year in the South Atlantic Ocean. The wind, at low levels, intensified in the South Atlantic anticyclone, moving towards South America continent. At high levels, the westward fluxes were weakened by the lower thermal gradient in the extratropical region. Although an intermediate complexity climate model was used, it was able to represent the main mass conservation mechanisms of the atmosphere and oceans. / O sistema climático da Terra é influenciado pela configuração da topografia, cuja importância fundamenta-se na caracterização dos aspectos dinâmicos e termodinâmicos da atmosfera e do oceano. Neste sentido, o objetivo do estudo é investigar os processos oceânicos e atmosféricos associados ao colapso das geleiras continentais da região oeste da Antártica, referente ao período de 1,080 milhão de anos (ka) passados. Para tal fim, foram realizadas duas simulações com o modelo climático acoplado SPEEDO: a) simulação controle (CTRL), sob condições atuais e; b) simulação forçada (1080ka), inserindo a topografia de 1,080 ka passados. Ambas as simulações são conduzidas com a concentração atmosférica de 2 CO em 380 ppmV. Na circulação oceânica, os resultados da simulação 1080ka mostram variações de salinidade e temperatura em relação à CTRL, em todos os níveis oceânicos. A forçante contribuiu para um aumento de aproximadamente 1,4 °C e 1,6 °C na temperatura da superfície do mar dos mares de Ross e a leste da Antártica, somados a intensificação do fluxo de calor oceânico ao sul do oceano Atlântico. Por outro lado, houve um acréscimo de 20 TW no fluxo de calor em direção ao norte do oceano Pacífico. Estas variações oceânicas conduzem a mudanças na circulação atmosférica. A temperatura do ar na simulação 1080ka foi 6,5 °C maior a CTRL na região do mar de Ross, inversamente a região leste da Antártica, onde ocorreu um decréscimo de 4,5 °C. No campo de precipitação, houve um aumento de aproximadamente 160 mm/ano na Península Antártica e uma diminuição próxima a 80 mm/ano no sul do Oceano Atlântico. O vento, em baixos níveis, foi intensificado no Anticiclone do Atlântico Sul, deslocando-se em direção ao continente sul-americano. Em altos níveis, os fluxos de oeste foram enfraquecidos, devido ao menor gradiente térmico meridional na região extratropical. Embora se tenha utilizado um modelo climático de complexidade intermediária, o mesmo foi capaz de representar os principais mecanismos de conservação de massa da atmosfera e dos oceanos.

Beaked whales are comparatively unknown social mammals due to their deep-ocean distribution and elusive habits. The deep-ocean is the largest biome on Earth and the final frontier for human expansion. Since their first discovery, beaked whales have remained largely hidden from science. In this era of rapid technological advancement, genetic and genomic methods are key tools for population biologists and are particularly useful in describing rarely seen species. Using DNA-barcoding and nuclear markers, the publications in this thesis provide data on the distribution and external appearance of two species of beaked whale: the spade-toothed (Mesoplodon traversii) and Derinayagala’s whale (Mesoplodon hotaula). These whales were previously known from only a handful of tissue and bone specimens. Long-term efforts have facilitated the collection of samples of Gray’s beaked whale (Mesoplodon grayi) and we have used shot-gun sequencing to characterise the mitochondrial genome and isolate species-specific nuclear microsatellite loci. Using genetic species and sex identification, together with museum specimens and multivariate analyses, we provide clear evidence of sexual dimorphism in cranial dimensions and geographic variation in external morphology. No genetic differentiation was evident in Gray’s beaked whales across a large study area (~ 6,000 km). With a large female effective population size (Ne) and genetic homogeneity, we hypothesise that gene flow is facilitated by large-scale oceanographic features, such as the sub-tropical convergence. Genetic kinship analyses within Gray’s beaked whale groups suggest that the whales that strand together are not related. Both sexes disperse from their parents and these groups are not formed through the retention of kin. These results are consistent with a ‘fission-fusion’ social system that has been observed in some oceanic dolphin species. Taken together, these data provide the first insights into the population dynamics, dispersal and social organisation in Gray’s beaked whales. These publications highlight the value of using genetics alongside other techniques to describe inter- and intraspecific diversity. For beaked whales, the dead can tell us much about the living.

L'ozone joue un rôle primordial sur l'équilibre photochimique de l'atmosphère et participe au processus d'équilibrage radiatif entre les deux hémisphères (Mecke, 1931). Dans la troposphère, l'ozone détermine la capacité oxydante de la majorité des gaz et absorbe continuellement dans la stratosphère les radiations ultraviolettes nocives (McMicheal et al., 2003). D'où l'intérêt de surveiller la variation de la couche d'ozone de façon régulière. Il a été constaté au début des années 80, une diminution inquiétante et progressive de la colonne totale de l'ozone dûe aux émissions anthropiques des substances riches en chlore, brome et fluor. Ce constat a conduit au Protocole de Montréal en 1987 dont l'objectif est de mettre en place une politique internationale visant à réduire les émissions des substances appauvrissant l'ozone. Dix ans après la signature du dit Protocole, la concentration de ces substances commence à diminuer dans l'atmosphère et la prospection d'un recouvrement progressif de la couche d'ozone demeure aujourd'hui un sujet d'actualité (UNEP/PNUE, 2009 ; OMM, 2010 et 2014). Les besoins d'aujourd'hui sont de réaliser des mesures continues et fiables de l'ozone dont leurs exploitation dans des méthodes et/ ou des modèles bien adaptés à la problématique aideront la communauté à suivre l'évolution de l'ozone et d'estimer les tendances à long terme. Dans ce travail, une variété de produits d'ozone issue de différents instruments a été combinée pour construire des bases des données fiables et homogènes afin d'étudier sa variabilité et d'estimer la tendance de l'ozone dans les régions tropicale et subtropicale sud. L'application de ces bases de données sur les ondelettes a permis d'identifier les principaux forçages qui contrôlent la variabilité de l'ozone et la période de retour associée à chaque forçage. Il s'agit des variations saisonnières du climat, les oscillations quasi-biennales, les oscillations australes El-Niño et l'activité solaire dont le cycle moyen est évalué à 11ans. Le comportement et l'influence de chacun de ces paramètres sur la viabilité de l'ozone sont étudiés. Cette étude est faite en s'appuyant sur des méthodes statistiques et sur le modèle Trend-Run. Avec ce modèle, la part de contribution et la réponse de chaque paramètre sur la variabilité de l'ozone sont quantifiées. Les résultats sur les tendances montrent une augmentation de la couche d'ozone avec un taux variant entre 0 et 2.78% par décade (selon la région et le site) sur la période 1998-2012. Cette amélioration est bien observée au-dessus de 22km, surtout aux subtropiques par rapport à la région équatoriale. / Ozone plays an important role on photochemical equilibrium of atmosphere and participate on radiative balance process between hemispheres (Mecke, 1931). In the troposphere, ozone determines the oxidizing capacity of major species and absorbs continuously in the stratosphere the harmful ultraviolet radiation (McMichael et al, 2003). Based on the above facts, it is important to monitor ozone continuously with consistency and accuracy. Global total column ozone (TCO) has depleted gradually since 1980 with an increase of chlorofluorocarbon concentrations in the stratosphere due to anthropogenic activities. In 1987, the Montreal protocol was formulated in order to regulate the emissions of substances that deplete ozone. Concentrations of these substances are observed to decrease ten years after the Montreal protocol. Thus we have been expecting an increase in ozone by now (UNEP/PNUE, 2009; WMO, 2010 and 2014). The current needs are to achieve consistent and reliable measurements in which their exploitation on adapted methods/models can help scientists to follow the ozone evolution and to estimate long term ozone trend. In this work, a variety of ozone products from different instruments was combined in order to create reliable and homogenous dataset to study the ozone variability and trend over the southern tropics and subtropics. The dataset application on wavelets method allowed to identify the dynamic parameters that control ozone variability and their periodicities. These include seasonal variations of climate, the quasi-biennial oscillations, the El-Niño Southern Oscillation and the 11-years solar cycle. The behavior of each parameter and its influence on ozone variability were analysed based on statistical method and the Trend-Run model. The contribution and response of each variable on ozone variability were quantified from the model. The obtained trends results exhibit an increase of total ozone from 1998 to 2012 with a rate varying between 0 and 2.78% par decade (depending of the site and region). The ozone increase was observed mainly above 22 km and it is more important over the subtropical region with respect to equatorial zone.

No description available.

MENVSC (Climatology) / Department of Geography and Geo-Information Sciences / Subtropical anticyclones locate and modulate weather and climate over subtropical belts for both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. This study investigates the spatio-temporal variability of the Mascarene High over the South Indian Ocean on (anomalous) weather and climate over southern Africa at intraseasonal, seasonal, interannual, multidecadal and event time-scales. The Mascarene High is located 25-35°S, 40-110°E, playing a vital role in day-to-day weather and climate patterns conditions over southern Africa. Spatio-temporal characteristics of the Mascarene High investigated in this study span the period 1985-2014 and 2071-2100, using NCEP-NCAR reanalysis datasets for present-day climate observations and the Conformal-Cubic Atmospheric Model (CCAM) for future projections. The Mascarene High is analysed using mean sea level pressure (MSLP) extracted from ECMWF ERA-interim monthly reanalysis data. The Mascarene High is also subjected to Principal Components Analysis, depicting eastern displacements of the weather system to be dominant for weather and climate fluctuations over southern Africa. The Mascarene High migrates south (north) during austral summer (winter) and is centred over the eastern Indian Ocean in summer in connection with the Indian Ocean Subtropical Dipole. Event scale analysis is also employed for investigating Mascarene High blocking and induced anomalous weather. Mascarene High blocking leads to anomalous rainfall events over southern Africa associated with tropical cyclones, cut-off lows and cloud bands. There is also a vital geographical variability of the Mascarene High development, distribution and movement in the South Indian Ocean at the different time-scales. Projections of the Mascarene High indicate a shift in mean location as a result of future expansion and intensification. This projected expansion and intensification is expected to shift tropical cyclone trajectories equatorward, with the baroclinic structure of cold fronts expected to shift poleward affecting changes in the weather and climate of southern Africa. This finding is important as it projects changes in weather and climate conditions over southern Africa in a changing climate due to increased greenhouse gas emissions.

Le mercure (Hg) est un métal émis dans l’atmosphère par des sources naturelles et anthropiques. Il est préoccupant à l’échelle mondiale de par sa propagation atmosphérique sur de longues distances, loin des sources d’émissions, sa persistance dans l’environnement, son potentiel de bioaccumulation dans les chaînes alimentaires aquatiques et ses effets néfastes sur la santé humaine. Les modèles atmosphériques, utilisés pour retracer son cheminement depuis les sources d’émissions jusqu’aux dépôts au sein des écosystèmes, sont entachés de fortes incertitudes en raison notamment de notre compréhension partielle des processus atmosphériques (réactions d’oxydo-réduction, dépôts, réémissions) et du manque de données d’observations à l’échelle planétaire. L’objectif de ces travaux de thèse est d’améliorer notre compréhension du cycle atmosphérique du Hg en trois sites reculés de l’Hémisphère Sud : l’île d’Amsterdam (AMS) en plein océan Indien, Concordia (DC) sur la calotte glaciaire antarctique et Dumont d’Urville (DDU) sur la côte Est du continent. Les données acquises à AMS démontrent une réactivité atmosphérique limitée du Hg dans cette région du globe. L’île étant faiblement et rarement influencée par des masses d’air continentales polluées, il s’agit d’un site clé pour la surveillance, sur le long terme, du bruit de fond atmosphérique aux moyennes latitudes de l’Hémisphère Sud. Les données acquises en Antarctique démontrent l’existence de processus inédits en termes de réactivité dans l’atmosphère et à l’interface air-neige. Les processus observés sur la calotte glaciaire influent par ailleurs sur le cycle du Hg à l’échelle continentale du fait des forts vents catabatiques. Ces avancées scientifiques permettront, à terme, de contraindre et d’améliorer les modèles atmosphériques globaux. / Mercury (Hg) is a metal emitted by both natural and anthropogenic sources. It is of global concern owing to its long-range atmospheric transport, its persistence in the environment, its ability to bioaccumulate in ecosystems, and its negative effects on human health. Large uncertainties associated with atmospheric models – that trace the link from emissions to deposition of Hg onto environmental surfaces – arise as a result of our incomplete understanding of atmospheric processes (oxidation pathways, deposition, and re-emission) and of the scarcity of monitoring data at a global scale. The aim of this PhD work is to improve our understanding of the atmospheric Hg cycling at three remote sites of the Southern Hemisphere: Amsterdam Island (AMS) in the Indian Ocean, Concordia (DC) on the East Antarctic ice sheet, and Dumont d’Urville (DDU) on the East Antarctic coast. Data acquired at AMS suggest a limited atmospheric reactivity of Hg in this part of the globe. The advection of polluted continental air masses being scarce, AMS is a key site for the long-term monitoring of the atmospheric background in the Southern Hemisphere mid-latitudes. Data acquired in Antarctica highlight the occurrence of unprecedented processes in the atmosphere and at the air-snow interface. Due to katabatic winds flowing out from the East Antarctic ice sheet down the steep vertical drops along the coast, processes observed at DC influence the cycle of atmospheric Hg on a continental scale. These scientific breakthroughs will ultimately lead to improved global transport and deposition models.