This study examines the mental preparation of elite athletes using naturalistic action research. The focus of investigation was on the personal difficulty of dealing with the "expert issue" that existed in the consultative relationship. The unfolding research experience confronted the researcher with personal dilemmas that needed to be resolved; activating significant shifts in the direction of exploration. These shifts were triggered in conversational contexts, highlighting the impact of co-evolved intimate sharing. Quantum leaps in understanding occurred when the researcher; (a) realised that a research proposal had been formulated that was not congruent with ecosystemic philosophies, (b) discovered action research, thereby shifting from an isolated self-reflective position to embracing the phenomenon of shared inquiry, (c) formed an action research group to investigate consultative issues, (d) became aware that the action research process was a reflection of an individual's unique idiosyncratic interactive and thinking style, (e) had to deal with the impact of a work experience as the action group turned into a therapeutic team, and (f) aligned himself to a narrative writing style to formally report on the "fluid", "free-flow" conversational experiences that had occurred in the research context. "Reflective interactive exploration" written methodology to capture the ideas emerged as a formal that evolve conversation. This methodology became the vehicle to during (a) shift more responsibility onto the athlete to become the "researcher of self", (b) open up further conversation, and (c) to relieve the psychologist of the expert position. The methodology was also utilised in the action research group to explore issues and to exchange ideas with the supervisor. The theory of the "mask of competency" of the athlete existing in a "culture of competition" is forwarded. A therapeutic model that balances intervention techniques with therapeutic conversation is suggested when consulting with athletes. Therapeutic conversation is broadened to incorporate concepts such as "energy flow", "obstacles and resistances" and "connection and intimacy". The personal "expert issue" was found to be a "reflection" of the researcher's own unique perceptions and interactive tendencies. Addressing issues at this level of personal identity required special interpersonal conditions; a context of respectful, intimate conversation. / Psychology / D. Litt. et Phil. (Psychology)

Much has been researched and written on the concept of intelligence in the last century and while much of it has been applied in educational settings and commercial organisations, little has been investigated and applied within a sports context. Early research in the 1970s identified sport intelligence as comprising primarily of reaction time and recall and it was only in 2002, some 30 years later, that it again appeared in the literature with sport intelligence being considered a psychological characteristic of Olympic champions. The research of Gould, Diffenbach and Moffet (2002) into sport intelligence hypothesised that sport intelligence included having “the ability to analyse, being innovative, being a student of the sport, making good decisions, understanding the nature of elite sport, and being a quick learner” (p. 5). Later research by Blue (2009) proposed a comprehensive model of sport intelligence as it applied to golf wherein he posited that sport intelligence – albeit in a golfing context – comprised a ‘competition’ and ‘developmental’ intelligence. Other than the thematic assessment of Gould et al. (2002) and the golf-specific study of Blue (2009) no literature, data or research was available internationally, on the African continent nor in South Africa. The researcher responded to the call for further research and decided to complete a qualitative, exploratory study in South Africa. The research commenced by covering what was available on sport intelligence literature and to build on it by reviewing and considering general intelligence theories. Both orthodox and unorthodox approaches were considered and the review suggested that sport intelligence would conceptually and theoretically consist of a number of dimensions and constructs including a series of cognitive processes like memory, reasoning, problem solving, decision making and other rational processes. The third source of literature was a review of sport psychology and it emphasised the importance and significance of emotional, motivational and other psychological factors in addition to the influences of personality. The literature review led to the researcher identifying 14 hypotheses which were explored with 15 credible sport participants, whereafter a thorough content analysis of the 14 hypotheses was performed. 13 of the 14 initial hypotheses were accepted with one included as a theme within another. The thematic assessment resulted in the identification and development of a systems model of sport intelligence comprising six components as follows:  A neurophysiological component;  A cognitive/rational component;  An emotional/affective component;  A team/group component;  A societal/ecological component; and  A metaphysical component. The investigation and analyses furthermore indicated that the components do not exist in isolation of one another and each dimension seems of equal significance. The data suggested a parallel process and dynamic interplay between these components and this led to a systemic perspective being adopted when synthesising the model into a logical and coherent framework. Each of the components were critically evaluated from a cognitive and systemic perspective. The systemic perspective proposed challenges the view that performance is not only an individual endeavour but also a systemic endeavour. / Psychology / D. Litt. et Phil. (Consulting Psychology)

Beginning as young as five or six years of age, children participate in organised sports and there are an estimated 25-35 million children under the age of eighteen who participate in organised youth sports. Whether success records, statistics, motivational factors or personal reasons are the motivators behind participation in sports, athletes are often studied by the population. Despite a large contingency of children who participate in sports, professional or adult athletes’ thoughts and motivations are often studied. However, one thing is known: The reason children play sports is because they have fun. This study explored the viewpoints of teachers/trainers from Schools in Paarl region from a qualitative perspective on why children choose to participate in sports. The participants were selected via non-probability sampling method with the utilisation of purposive sampling techniques. Data were collected with semi structured interviews with teachers/trainers at Paarl schools. Data were analysed according to Tesch’s (in Creswell, 2009:186) framework for the analysing of qualitative data and data were verified according to Guba’s (in Krefting, 1991:214-222) framework for data verification of qualitative data. The verified data were described in specific teams and sub-themes as well as supplemented by literature control. The researcher concludes this study by drawing certain conclusions and recommendations from the research findings / Practical Theology / M.A. (Daiconiology)

Thesis (PhD (Sport Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / Stress and coping are complex phenomena that are not always fully understood. They are psychological factors that impinge on individuals and people’s responses in dealing with them are described and interpreted in various ways. This study compared the coping strategies used by football players from ethnically diverse backgrounds. The aim was to explore the role that the environment, ethnicity and culture play in players' responses to stressful situations. A sample of 33 players was drawn from a professional club in the Professional Premier Soccer League in the Western Cape, Republic of South Africa. Subjects were representative in terms of race, age, years of experience and playing positions. Eleven black, coloured and white players for each group were selected for individual interviews. Their ages ranged between 15 and 32 years. An interpretive-qualitative research methodology was employed. Semistructured interviews and a biographical questionnaire were used as tools to gather information. The data were analyzed using interpretive analysis or the immersion crystallization method. The results revealed that football players were exposed to stress and there were differences and similarities in the way they conducted themselves. The similarities were recorded on matters related to match situations e.g., pressure to perform, inclusion in a starting line-up, and unruly behavior of supporters. Differences were cited on issues related to language, culture, financial matters, poor playing conditions, negative evaluation of the team by others, losing matches, referees' decisions and being away from home. These differences were found both between and within ethnic groups. Players' perceptions of stress showed that black players were experiencing more stress than the other two ethnic groups and white players were experiencing far less stress than the other two groups. Despite this finding, the majority of players reported to have been in control of stressful situations. The perception of lack of control was reported by black and coloured players only. It appeared that background experience of stressful events was producing greater psychosocial consequences for non-white players than white players. The football players used multiple strategies to cope with their sport challenges and there were both differences and similarities within and between the ethnic groups in the use of these strategies. Subjects used problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping, passive coping, and avoidance coping in stressful situations. Problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping were the dominant strategies employed by all three groups. Passive coping and avoidance coping were the lesser-used strategies and were employed by the three groups in situations where players felt that they could not exert control e.g., playing conditions or dubious referees' decisions. Self-criticism, not blaming others, adopting a negative approach, substance use/abuse and turning to religion were the strategies that appeared only in specific groups. This finding supports the hypothesis of differences in strategies related to differences in ethnic backgrounds. It was also revealed that football players were responding differently to stressful challenges that were presented at the different stages of the match. The dominant strategies used at the pre-match stage by the nonwhite group were: planning and preparation, relaxation, praying, focusing and concentration. At the same stage, white players used mostly focusing, concentration and planning. There were strong similarities between the groups in the use of these strategies. During the match stage, non-white players used active coping, positive approach, suppression of competitive activities, focusing and concentration. White players used similar strategies including emotional expression and mental disengagement. Different strategies were employed by players during the match stage, most of them being problem-focused strategies. In the post-match stage players used less-dominant coping strategies. Some strategies were used by players in all three ethnic groups and others appeared in specific groups only, e.g., substance use (coloured group) and passive thinking (white group). The study further revealed that coping strategies could be classified either as sport or non-sport related. A variety of sport-related strategies were found mostly during the pre-match and match stages. The nonsport related strategies appeared mostly during the post-match stage and were used mostly by non-white players. Concerning the processes involved in the selection of strategies, the study revealed that thought-out processes, automatic processes, influence of experience and a combination of processes were used to identify and select coping strategies. Processing of information was a preferred option used by the three groups of players to identify strategies and very few players used automatic processes. Between-group differences were found in the relationship between environmental background and previous experience and the players' selection of coping strategies. For black and coloured players this influence related mostly from factors outside their home environment. For white players it came from within their home situations. The study showed that factors that affected the players in selecting coping strategies, were both intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic factors included personal safety and protection, performance, self-control and personal experience. Extrinsic factors included stress, influence of others, institutional influences, social background, pleasing others, family obligation, opponents and research. White players used intrinsic and extrinsic factors with equal frequency. Non-white players on the other hand, used fewer intrinsic factors than extrinsic factors. The results also showed that relatively less-experienced players were inclined to use achievement motivation as a determining factor. Black players were influenced by one other factor that did not appear in the other groups, that is, family obligations. Finally, exhaustion, cultural differences, language, absence of a family support structure, peer pressure, home circumstances, communication, diet, substance use/abuse, being in a new environment, personality differences and high expectations were identified as factors that restrict the use of coping strategy. Exhaustion and cultural differences appeared across all three groups. Group differences were however observed in language, absence of a family support structure, peer pressure, home circumstances, high expectations, and absence of compliments. These restrictive factors were experienced differently within and between the three ethnic groups and originated from exposure, challenges, and experiences that players encounter in their daily life situations.

Much has been researched and written on the concept of intelligence in the last century and while much of it has been applied in educational settings and commercial organisations, little has been investigated and applied within a sports context. Early research in the 1970s identified sport intelligence as comprising primarily of reaction time and recall and it was only in 2002, some 30 years later, that it again appeared in the literature with sport intelligence being considered a psychological characteristic of Olympic champions. The research of Gould, Diffenbach and Moffet (2002) into sport intelligence hypothesised that sport intelligence included having “the ability to analyse, being innovative, being a student of the sport, making good decisions, understanding the nature of elite sport, and being a quick learner” (p. 5). Later research by Blue (2009) proposed a comprehensive model of sport intelligence as it applied to golf wherein he posited that sport intelligence – albeit in a golfing context – comprised a ‘competition’ and ‘developmental’ intelligence. Other than the thematic assessment of Gould et al. (2002) and the golf-specific study of Blue (2009) no literature, data or research was available internationally, on the African continent nor in South Africa. The researcher responded to the call for further research and decided to complete a qualitative, exploratory study in South Africa. The research commenced by covering what was available on sport intelligence literature and to build on it by reviewing and considering general intelligence theories. Both orthodox and unorthodox approaches were considered and the review suggested that sport intelligence would conceptually and theoretically consist of a number of dimensions and constructs including a series of cognitive processes like memory, reasoning, problem solving, decision making and other rational processes. The third source of literature was a review of sport psychology and it emphasised the importance and significance of emotional, motivational and other psychological factors in addition to the influences of personality. The literature review led to the researcher identifying 14 hypotheses which were explored with 15 credible sport participants, whereafter a thorough content analysis of the 14 hypotheses was performed. 13 of the 14 initial hypotheses were accepted with one included as a theme within another. The thematic assessment resulted in the identification and development of a systems model of sport intelligence comprising six components as follows:  A neurophysiological component;  A cognitive/rational component;  An emotional/affective component;  A team/group component;  A societal/ecological component; and  A metaphysical component. The investigation and analyses furthermore indicated that the components do not exist in isolation of one another and each dimension seems of equal significance. The data suggested a parallel process and dynamic interplay between these components and this led to a systemic perspective being adopted when synthesising the model into a logical and coherent framework. Each of the components were critically evaluated from a cognitive and systemic perspective. The systemic perspective proposed challenges the view that performance is not only an individual endeavour but also a systemic endeavour. / Psychology / D. Litt. et Phil. (Consulting Psychology)

by Wai-Kei Yeung. / Questionnarie in Chinese. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1997. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 117-124). / Acknowledgments / Abstract / List of Tables / List of Figures / Chapter I --- INTRODUCTION / Background of Study --- p.1 / Purpose of Study --- p.8 / Chapter II --- LITERATURE REVIEW --- p.10 / Physical Self-Concept --- p.11 / Models and Measurement of Physical Self-Concept --- p.14 / Physical Self-Concept and its Relation to External Criteria --- p.20 / Goal Orientations in Sport and Physical Education --- p.26 / Achievement Goals --- p.27 / Achievement Goals and Outcomes --- p.29 / Motivational Climate in Physical Education --- p.34 / Motivational Orientations in sport participation --- p.39 / Summary --- p.44 / Chapter III --- RESEARCH METHODOLOGY --- p.46 / Definition of Variables and Instrumentation --- p.47 / Physical Self-Concept --- p.47 / Achievement Goal and Classroom Climate --- p.49 / Sport Participating Motivation in Secondary Physical Education Class --- p.51 / Conceptual Framework --- p.53 / Research Hypotheses --- p.60 / Subjects --- p.62 / Procedure --- p.63 / Statistical Analyses --- p.64 / Chapter IV --- RESULTS --- p.68 / Chapter V --- DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION --- p.100 / Limitations and Suggestions --- p.112 / Conclusion --- p.113 / REFERENCES --- p.117 / APPENDICES / Chapter A. --- Physical Self Description Questionnaire --- p.125 / Chapter B. --- Goal Orientations Inventory --- p.128 / Chapter C. --- Sport Participating Motivation Inventory --- p.129

University of Macau / Faculty of Education

University of Macau / Faculty of Education

University of Macau / Faculty of Education

University of Macau / Faculty of Education