Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-02T19:55:25Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2620.pdf: 1689550 bytes, checksum: 4fa47e9cd5f6de2ff9af48027193823e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-05-25 / Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais / The objective of this thesis was to prepare and select immobilized lipase derivatives with high catalytic activity and thermal stability to mediate the biodiesel synthesis from palm and babassu oils by ethanolic route. The experimental work was carried out in two steps. In the first, different lipases sources, including lipases from Thermomyces lanuginosus (TLL), Candida antarctica type B (CALB), porcine pancreas (PPL), Bacillus thermocatenulatus (BTL2), Pseudomonas fluorescens (LPF) and Lipex® 100L were immobilized on different supports activated by several protocols using two immobilization methods, such as physical adsorption and multipoint covalent attachment. The following matrixes were used: agarose, Toyopearl, chitosan, alginate-chitosan, octyl-agarose, hexyltoyopearl and PHB and activating agents were: glutaraldehyde, epichlorohydrin and glycidol. As expected the immobilization procedure, support and lipase source affected the catalytic properties of the immobilized derivatives and their suitability for the proposed reaction. With an exception of PPL, all lipase preparations (TLL, PFL, Lipex® 100L and CALB) showed high alkaline stability under the immobilization conditions (72 h at pH 10.05) resulting in immobilized derivatives having high hydrolytic activities. The highest hydrolytic activities were obtained by TLL immobilized on glyoxyl-agarose, glyoxyl-chitosan-alginate-TNBS, epoxy-chitosan-alginate and Lipex® 100L immobilized on epoxy-chitosan-alginate and glyoxyl-agarose. Under non-aqueous media using butyl butyrate synthesis as a model system, TLL and PFL immobilized on glyoxyl-agarose and glyoxyl-amine-toyopearl showed similar conversions. The highest thermal stability were obtained for non-aminated BTL2 immobilized on glyoxyl-agarose 10BCL (Stability Factor- SF =2648) and chemically aminated (SF=4360), followed by aminated CALB immobilized on glyoxyl-agarose BCL (SF=290) and TLL immobilized on glyoxyl-agarose BCL (SF~300). Using chitosan-alginate, the highest thermal stability was obtained for TLL immobilized on chitosan-alginate-TNBS activated with glyoxyl groups and glutaraldehyde (SF=45). The immobilization of lipases BTL2, CALB and TLL on hydrophobic supports such as octyl-agarose and hexyl-toyopearl by physical adsorption allowed obtaining thermal stable derivatives. In addition, immobilized derivatives on poly-(hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) showed high catalytic activity in both hydrolysis and esterification reactions. In the second step and based on their catalytic properties under both aqueous and non-aqueous media as well as thermal stabilities the following immobilized derivatives: TLL and PFL immobilized on glyoxyl-agarose and glyoxyl-amine-Toyopearl, TLL immobilized on chitosan-alginate-TNBS activated with glyoxyl and glutaraldehyde; TLL, PFL, Lipex® 100L and CALB immobilized by physical adsorption on PHB were selected to mediate the synthesis of biodiesel from palm and babassu oils. For derivatives prepared by multipoint covalent attachment and under the conditions used, total conversion in ethyl esters was achieved within 24 to 48 h, depending on the vegetable oil. For immobilized derivatives prepared by physical adsorption on PHB, a slight higher reaction time (72 h) was needed to attain total conversion in ethyl esters. Despite its high esterification activity, BTL2 immobilized on PHB failed to mediate the ethanolysis of both vegetable oils. The viscosity values for the biodiesel samples (3.4-4.5 cSt) are in accordance with specifications recommended by the Brazilian Petroleum Agency (ANP) to be used as biofue. / Este trabalho teve como objetivo preparar e selecionar derivados imobilizados de lipases com elevada atividade catalítica e estável termicamente para mediar a síntese de biodiesel a partir dos óleos de palma e babaçu pela rota etílica. O trabalho experimental foi desenvolvido em duas etapas. Na primeira etapa, diferentes fontes de lipases incluindo as lipases de Thermomyces lanuginosus (LTL), Candida antarctica tipo B (CALB), pâncreas de porco (LPP), Bacillus thermocatenulatus (BTL2), Pseudomonas fluorescens (LPF) e Lipex® 100L foram imobilizadas em diferentes suportes ativados por diferentes protocolos usando dois procedimentos de imobilização, adsorção física e ligação covalente multipontual. As seguintes matrizes foram testadas: agarose, Toyopearl, complexos polieletrolíticos de quitosana, octil-agarose, hexil-toyopearl e PHB e os agentes de ativação testados foram: glutaraldeído, epicloridrina e glicidol. Como esperado o procedimento de imobilização, suporte e fonte de lipase afetaram as propriedades catalíticas dos derivados imobilizados e adequação para mediar a síntese proposta. Com exceção da LPP, todas as preparações de lipase (LTL, PFL, Lipex® 100L e CALB) mostraram elevada estabilidade em meio alcalino (72 h em pH 10,05) e resultaram em derivados com elevada atividade hidrolítica. As atividades hidrolíticas mais elevadas foram obtidas pela LTL imobilizada em glioxil-agarose, glioxil-quitosana-alginato-TNBS, epóxi-quitosana-alginato e Lipex® 100L imobilizada em epóxi-quitosana-alginato e em glioxil-agarose. Na síntese de butirato de butila, as reações catalisadas por LTL e LPF imobilizadas em glioxil-agarose e glioxil-amino-toyopearl apresentaram conversões superiores a 65%. As estabilidades térmicas mais elevadas foram obtidas para BTL2 não-aminada imobilizada em glioxil-agarose 10BCL (FE=2648) e aminada quimicamente (FE=4360), seguido de CALB aminada imobilizada em glioxil-agarose 6BCL (FE=290) e LTL imobilizada em glioxil-agarose 6BCL (FE~300). Usando quitosana-alginato, as estabilidades térmicas mais elevadas foram obtidas para LTL imobilizada em quitosanaalginato- TNBS ativados com grupos glioxil e glutaraldeído (FE=45). A imobilização de lipases BTL2, CALB e LTL em suportes hidrofóbicos octil-agarose e hexil-toyopearl por adsorção física resultaram em derivados estáveis termicamente com elevada atividade catalítica em reações de hidrólise. Lipases também foram imobilizadas em poli- (hidróxibutirato) (PHB) por adsorção física e os derivados preparados apresentaram alta atividade catalítica em meio aquoso e orgânico. Tomando por base as propriedades catalíticas em meio aquoso e orgânico, bem como a estabilidade térmica foram selecionados para mediar a síntese de biodiesel os derivados de LTL e LPF imobilizados em géis glioxil-agarose e glioxil-amino-toyopearl e LTL imobilizada em quitosana-alginato-TNBS por ativação com glicidol, derivados preparados das lipases LTL, LPF, Lipex® 100L e CALB em PHB. Para as lipases imobilizadas por ligação covalente multipontual e nas condições testadas, a conversão total em ésteres de etila foi alcançada entre 24 a 48 h, dependendo do óleo vegetal. Para os derivados preparados por adsorção física em PHB, um maior tempo de reação (72 h) foi necessário para atingir a conversão total em ésteres de etila. Apesar da elevada atividade de esterificação, BTL2 imobilizada em PHB não catalisou a reação de etanólise de ambos os óleos vegetais, mas mostrou alta atividade de esterificação. Os valores de viscosidade das amostras de biodiesel purificadas (3.4-4.5 cSt) atendem as espeficacões recomendadas pela Agência Brasileira de Petróleo (ANP) para ser usado como biocombustível.

Soit E une courbe elliptique sur un corps de valuation discrètecomplet K à corps résiduel algbriquement clos. Alors E a réduction semi-stable surune extension minimale L/K, galoisienne de groupe de Galois G. Soient O_{K} , O_{L} les anneaux de valuations respectives de K et L, et X , X' les modèles réguliers minimaux de E sur O_{K} et O_{L} respectivement.Premièrement nous montrons que pour tout entier naturel n, la fibre fermée infinitésimale X_{n} est déterminée par l'action du groupe G sur X'_{n+l} pour unentier naturel l assez grand (ne dépendant que du discriminant de L/K sile type de réduction de E n'est pas I*_{r} ). Deuxiémement, nous classifions àisomorphisme près la fibre fermée X_{0} en tant que courbe sur le corps résiduelde K, lorsque la caractéristique résiduelle est nulle ou au moins égale à 7. Cette classification est plus fine que la classification par le type à la Kodairaet Néron. / Suppose E is an elliptic curve over a complete discrete valuationfield K whose residue field k is algebraically closed. Then E has semi-stablereduction after a minimal field extension L/K, moreover L/K is Galois andlet G be the Galois group. Let O_{K} and O_{L} be the ring of integers of K andL respectively. Let X (resp. X ') be the minimal regular model of E over O_{K}(resp. O_{L} ). In the first part of thesis, we prove that for all natural integersn, the infinitesimal fiber X_{n} is determined by the G-action on O_{K}-schemeX'_{n+l} for some positive integer l (depending only on the discriminant of L/Kif the reduction type of E is not I*_{r} ). In the second part of thesis, we classifythe special fiber X_{0} up to isomorphisms as k-curves when Char(k) >= 7. This classification is finer than the classification by Kodaira and Néron.

The synthesis of in-situ bulk metallic glass composites (BMGCs) with crystals that undergo a martensitic transformation under loading is possibly the most effective method to improve the plasticity of metallic glasses at room temperature. These martensitic or shape memory BMGCs are typically fabricated via solidification of glass-forming melts, which requires the meticulous selection of the chemical composition and the proper choice of the processing parameters (particularly the cooling rate) in order to ensure that the glassy matrix coexists with the desired amount of austenitic phase having suitable morphology and characteristics. Unfortunately, a relatively limited number of alloy systems, where austenite and glassy matrix coexist over a wide range of compositions, is available. Additionally, the necessity for rapid heat extraction and the corresponding high cooling rates essential for glass formation by melt solidification set an inherent limit to the achievable dimensions of BMGs and BMGCs specimens. The aim of this thesis is to study the effectiveness of powder metallurgy as an alternative to solidification for the synthesis of shape memory BMGCs. Ni50.6Ti49.4 and Zr48Cu36Al8Ag8 metallic glass powders were selected as the constituents of the composites because they have been extensively investigated and represent well the characteristic behavior of metallic glass and shape memory phases. BMGCs with different volume fractions of NiTi phase were fabricated using pressure-assisted sintering via hot pressing and their microstructure, mechanical properties and deformation mechanism were investigated. Particular focus was placed upon identifying the individual contributions of the martensitic transformation and shear band formation to plasticity as well as their mutual interaction at different length scales using a multidisciplinary approach involving experiments and simulations. BMG composites were synthesized by hot pressing of powder mixtures consisting of Zr48Cu36Al8Ag8 metallic glass and different amounts of Ni50.6Ti49.4 particles (10, 20, 40 and 60 vol.%) using the optimized consolidation parameters (temperature-time-pressure) determined for the monolithic BMG. All composites are characterized by a relatively uniform particle distribution and good interface bonding without any sign of reaction between the metallic glass and NiTi. The NiTi particles are progressively less isolated with increasing volume fraction of NiTi up to 40 % and, for the BMGC with 60 vol.% NiTi, the glassy particles are no longer connected and the NiTi phase becomes the continuous matrix. This is not a trivial achievement as the change of matrix while maintaining the structure of the constituent phases would not be easily obtained by solidification of melts with such different compositions. The size of the samples (10 mm diameter and 9 - 11 mm height) is larger than the characteristic BMGCs synthesized by casting and can, in principle, be scaled up to larger dimensions, demonstrating the effectiveness of this approach for overcoming the size limitation inherent to glass formation via solidification. In contrast to the monolithic BMG, which does not show any sign of plasticity, the BMGCs exhibit macroscopic plastic deformation that progressively increases with increasing NiTi content along with distinct strain-hardening. The BMG composites have similar fracture strength, which is comparable with the monolithic BMG, and exhibit a distinct double yield behavior, similar to shape memory BMGCs fabricated by casting. The deformed BMGCs exhibit a high density of shear bands, again in agreement with what observed for similar BMGCs fabricated by casting. These findings not only demonstrate that BMGCs with tunable microstructures and thus with optimized deformability can be synthesized by pressure-assisted sintering but, thanks to the phase stability of the components across such a wide range of compositions, also offer an excellent platform to examine fundamental aspects in the field of martensitic BMGCs. The confining stress exerted by the surrounding glassy matrix was quantified at the macroscale via a hybrid Voigt-Reuss mixture, which considers intermediate weighted combinations of stiff and compliant behaviors. In this way, the macroscopic stress required to initiate the martensitic transformation from B2 to B19´ can be described with rather good accuracy. The confining effect was further investigated by in-situ high-energy X-ray diffraction to have access to the strain tensor of the B2 phase as a function of loading. The results indicate that the confining stress along the direction perpendicular to the loading axis is particularly strong because the expansion of the B2 phase is constrained by the elastic matrix. A mechanism responsible for shear band formation in shape memory BMGCs is proposed. The stress field generated by the martensitic transformation in the contiguous glass would activate the adjacent shear transformation zone (STZ, the elementary units of plasticity in BMGs). The stress field induced by the activated STZ in the surrounding material then triggers the activation of the following STZs along the path of a potential shear band, in an autocatalytic process resembling the domino effect. The shear band formed in this way propagates through the glassy phase and, when impinging a B2 particle, the associated stress field would locally trigger the martensitic transformation, starting again the process. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of a martensitic BMGC show that the structural perturbation generated by the martensitic transformation is indeed transmitted to the adjacent glassy matrix and, in turn, to the developing shear band, in agreement with the proposed mechanism. The individual contribution of the glassy phase to the residual strain after each loading-unloading cycle was quantified assuming that the NiTi phase behaves in the same manner across the different specimens. The glass contribution was then correlated to the shear band density to obtain the plastic strain resulting from shear banding for a given amount of NiTi phase, a quantity that could be effectively used in the design of plastically-deformable BMGCs with shape memory particles. The martensitic transformation in the composites becomes progressively more irreversible with increasing strain. A large contribution to the martensite stabilization may come from the residual stress induced by the shear bands, in accordance with the finite element method (FEM) simulations, showing that residual stresses in the composites suppress the reverse transformation after unloading. These finding corroborates the hypothesis that the residual elastic stress field generated by the shear bands may be fundamental for stabilizing the martensitic phase by restraining the atoms at the glass-crystal interface from rearranging back to form austenite. This process can be reversed by proper heat treatment. The findings presented in this thesis offer the opportunity to synthesize shape memory BMG composites with enhanced plasticity and strain-hardening capability along with larger dimensions than those typically achieved by solidification. The powder metallurgy approach provides the necessary versatility in materials design and resulting properties of the composites via the control over the fundamental microstructural features, such as volume fraction, size, morphology and distribution of the second phase. Additionally, materials processing in the solid state gives a virtually infinite choice among the possible composite components, a degree of freedom not usually given when processing via solidification.:Abstract iii Kurzfassung vii Motivation and objectives xi 1 Theoretical background and state-of-the-art 1 1.1 Bulk metallic glasses (BMGs) 1 1.1.1 Formation of metallic glasses 2 1.1.2 Mechanical properties of BMGs 5 1.1.3 Shear bands in metallic glasses 8 1.2 Bulk metallic glass matrix composites 19 1.2.1 Fabrication of BMG composites 20 1.2.2 In-situ BMG composites 27 1.2.3 Ex-situ BMG composites 43 2 Experiments and simulations 57 2.1 Sample preparation 57 2.1.1 Starting materials 57 2.1.2 Powder mixing 59 2.1.3 Powder consolidation 60 2.2 Materials characterization 61 2.2.1 Composition analysis 61 2.2.2 Laboratory X-ray diffraction 61 2.2.3 High-energy X-ray diffraction and strain analysis 62 2.2.4 Viscosity measurements 63 2.2.5 Differential scanning calorimetry 64 2.2.6 Density measurements 64 2.2.7 X-ray computed tomography 65 2.2.8 Optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy 65 2.2.9 Transmission electron microscopy 66 2.2.10 Elastic constants measurements 66 2.2.11 Mechanical tests 67 2.3 Molecular dynamic simulations 67 2.4 Finite element simulations 68 3 Pressure-assisted sintering of single-phase Zr48Cu36Al8Ag8 metallic glass and Ni50.6Ti49.4 powders 73 3.1 Synthesis and properties of single-phase Zr48Cu36Al8Ag8 bulk metallic glass 73 3.2 Synthesis and properties of single-phase Ni50.6Ti49.4 shape memory alloy 80 4 Pressure-assisted sintering of BMG composites with shape memory crystals: Microstructure and mechanical properties 87 4.1 Microstructure of BMG composites 87 4.2 Effect of NiTi volume fraction on mechanical properties 90 4.3 Effect of confinement of the glassy phase on the martensitic transformation 95 5 Deformation mechanism of shape memory BMG composites 101 5.1 Martensitic transformation and shear band formation 101 5.2 Mechanism of shear band formation in shape memory BMG composites 107 6 Reversibility of the martensitic transformation in shape memory BMG composites 113 6.1 Martensite stabilization in NiTi alloy and BMG composites 113 6.2 Simulation of the martensite stabilization effect in BMG composites 119 6.3 Effect of heat treatment on the martensitic reverse transformation 121 7 Summary and outlook 125 References 131 Acknowledgements 155 Publications 157 Erklärung 159

The goal of this master's thesis is design and built of platform for three-rotor helicopter development. The helicopter is also known as tricopter. Theoretical part describes principle of tricopter's flight and stabilization. There is also described basics inertial navigation system and sensors which are required for correct functionality. Practical part is dedicated to development of tricopter's frame, schematics diagram, communication between subsystems and stabilization system development. Flight stablization system is base on ATmega128A an using PID Controller. In the end is described testing of developed platform.

The thesis examines the comprehensive relationship between all aspects of financial liberalisation and economic growth in three countries from the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Employing ARDL bounds test approach and real GDP per capita as growth indicator; the thesis finds support in favour of the McKinnon-Shaw hypothesis but also finds that the increases in the subsequent savings and investments have not been transmitted into economic growth in two of the studied countries. Moreover, the thesis also finds that stock market developments have negligible or negative impact on economic growth in two of the selected countries. The thesis concludes that in most cases, it is not financial liberalisation polices that affect economic growth in the selected ECOWAS countries, but rather increase in the productivity of labour, increase in the credit to the private sector, increase in foreign direct investments, increase in the capital stock and increase in government expenditure contrary to expectations. Interestingly, the thesis also finds that export has only negative effect on economic growth in all the selected ECOWAS countries. The thesis therefore, recommends that long-term export diversification programmes be implemented in the ECOWAS regions whilst further investigation is carried on the issue. / Economic Sciences / D. Litt et Phil. (Economics)

From the Proceedings of the 1972 Meetings of the Arizona Section - American Water Resources Assn. and the Hydrology Section - Arizona Academy of Science - May 5-6, 1972, Prescott, Arizona / A preliminary study was made with the objective of examining nitrogen species transformations of treated sewage effluent releases within the channel of an ephemeral stream, the Santa Cruz River of southern Arizona. Water quality samples were taken at established locations in sequence so that peak daily flows could be traced as the effluent moved downstream. Results indicate that increased nitrification, coinciding with changing stream characteristics, starts in the vicinity of Cortaro Road (6.3 river miles from the Tucson Sewage Treatment Plant discharge). Through physical-chemical changes in streamflow, nitrate -nitrogen values reach a maximum at approximately 90-95 percent and 60-80 percent of total flow distance for low flows and high flows, respectively. Concentrations of ammonia-nitrogen and total nitrogen decrease continuously downstream with both high and low flows. Therefore, the rate of nitrification within sewage effluent releases in a desert stream channel evidently is related to flow distance and physical characteristics of the stream.

The thesis examines the comprehensive relationship between all aspects of financial liberalisation and economic growth in three countries from the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Employing ARDL bounds test approach and real GDP per capita as growth indicator; the thesis finds support in favour of the McKinnon-Shaw hypothesis but also finds that the increases in the subsequent savings and investments have not been transmitted into economic growth in two of the studied countries. Moreover, the thesis also finds that stock market developments have negligible or negative impact on economic growth in two of the selected countries. The thesis concludes that in most cases, it is not financial liberalisation polices that affect economic growth in the selected ECOWAS countries, but rather increase in the productivity of labour, increase in the credit to the private sector, increase in foreign direct investments, increase in the capital stock and increase in government expenditure contrary to expectations. Interestingly, the thesis also finds that export has only negative effect on economic growth in all the selected ECOWAS countries. The thesis therefore, recommends that long-term export diversification programmes be implemented in the ECOWAS regions whilst further investigation is carried on the issue. / Economics / D. Litt et Phil. (Economics)