Star formation occurs when the gas (mostly atomic hydrogen; H I) in a galaxy becomes disturbed, forming regions of high density gas, which then collapses to form stars. In dwarf galaxies it is still uncertain which processes contribute to star formation and how much they contribute to star formation. Blue compact dwarf (BCD) galaxies are low mass, low shear, gas rich galaxies that have high star formation rates when compared to other dwarf galaxies. What triggers the dense burst of star formation in BCDs but not other dwarfs is not well understood. It is often suggested that BCDs may have their starburst triggered by gravitational interactions with other galaxies, dwarf-dwarf galaxy mergers, or consumption of intergalactic gas. However, there are BCDs that appear isolated with respect to other galaxies, making an external disturbance unlikely. Here, I study six apparently isolated BCDs from the LITTLE THINGS1sample in an attempt to understand what has triggered their burst of star formation. LITTLE THINGS is an H I survey of 41 dwarf galaxies. Each galaxy has high angular and velocity resolution H I data from the Very Large Array (VLA) telescope and ancillary stellar data. I use these data to study the detailed morphology and kinematics of each galaxy, looking for signatures of starburst triggers. In addition to the VLA data, I have collected Green Bank Telescope data for the six BCDs. These high sensitivity, low resolution data are used to search the surrounding area of each galaxy for extended emission and possible nearby companion galaxies. The VLA data show evidence that each BCD has likely experienced some form of external disturbance despite their apparent isolation. These external disturbances potentially seen in the sample include: ongoing/advanced dwarf-dwarf mergers, an interaction with an unknown external object, and external gas consumption. The GBT data result in no nearby, separate H I companions at the sensitivity of the data. These data therefore suggest that even though these BCDs appear isolated, they have not been evolving in isolation. It is possible that these external disturbances may have triggered the starbursts that defines them as BCDs. 1Local Irregulars That Trace Luminosity Extremes, The H I Nearby Galaxy Survey; https://science.nrao.edu/science/surveys/littlethings

O mecanismo de formação de estrelas de alta massa é um dos problemas fundamentais em Astrofísica e um dos menos compreendidos. Duas teorias predizem a formação destes objetos, que se formariam via i) colisão de estrelas de baixa massa, ou ii) acreção por disco circunstelar. Atualmente, ambas as teorias carecem de testes observacionais críticos. Não obstante, o número de estrelas de alta massa jovens já identificadas na Galáxia corresponde a uma fração muito menor do que o esperado pela função de massa inicial. Este trabalho apresenta um estudo observacional de candidatos a MYSOs, selecionados a partir do levantamento Red MSX Source. Observações de 376 objetos nos filtros estreitos do H2 em 2.12 mícrons e num contínuo adjacente foram realizadas para identificar jatos moleculares colimados e 296 delas são apresentadas nesse trabalho. As observações do hemisfério Norte foram realizadas com o telescópio CFHT (Havaí) enquanto os objetos do hemisfério Sul, foram observados com o telescópio SOAR (Chile). A análise dos mapas de emissão em H2 permitiu concluir que 150 dos 296 objetos (51%) estão associados a emissões extensas em H2, e 62 delas foram classificadas como emissões polares. A análise da razão de aspecto das estruturas identificadas mostra que as emissões associadas a fontes com maior luminosidade apresentam baixo grau de colimação, tal como sugere o cenário de geração dos jatos a partir de ventos emanados pela pressão de radiação do disco circunstelar. A baixa fração de emissões polares (apenas 21% da amostra) indica que o tempo de vida dessas estruturas devem ser curtos. As evidências observacionais encontradas nesse trabalho corroboram o cenário de acreção via disco circunstelar e invalidam o modelo formação via coalescência de estrelas de baixa massa, que requer ambientes relativamente densos e não é capaz de produzir jatos colimados. / Very few massive stars in early formation stages were clearly identified in our Galaxy. The formation process of these objects is still unclear and two theories predict the formation of massive stars: i) by merging of low mass stars or ii) by an accretion disk. There are no critical observational evidences to choose between them. The lack of observational evidences combined with the small number of known massive stars in formation in our Galaxy does not allow us to choose between these scenarios. We present a near-infrared survey of MYSOs candidates selected from the Red MSX Source survey. Such catalog is based on an accurate revision of distances and luminosities, overcoming the limitations and failures in previous searches of this kind. 376 targets were observed through the H2 narrow-band filter at 2.12 microns and in the continuum to identify collimated molecular jets. 296 targets were successfully processed using the THELI pipeline and are presented. Observations in the Northern Hemisphere were carried at the CFHT telescope (Hawaii) while the Southern targets were observed with the Soar Telescope (Chile). The results show that 150 of the 296 sources display extended H2 emission and 62 of them are polar. The analysis of the aspect ratio of the structures indicates that emissions associated with higher luminosity sources have low degree of collimation. This is in agreement with the scenario of the radiation pressure-driven outflows from the circunstellar discs. The low fraction of sources associated with polar jets (21%) indicates a short timescale of such structures. The observational evidences found on this work support the accretion scenario and show that coalescence of low-mass stars (which may require relatively dense environments and is not expected to produce jet-like structures) is not likely to explain most of the studied MYSOs candidates.

Nesta tese é apresentado um catálogo fotométrico no infravermelho próximo de 35 Regiões HII, todas pertencentes ao disco Galáctico. Esta faixa espectral é útil uma vez que os comprimentos de onda são grandes o suficiente para se ter uma baixa extinção interestelar comparada ao visível, e são pequenos o suficiente para diagnosticar as fotosferas estelares. Foram obtidas imagens nas bandas J, H e K e imagens do Spitzer nos canais de 3,5, 5,8 e 8,0 m. Após a fotometria nas imagens JHK, foi possível construir diagramas cor-cor e cor-magnitude. Foram utilizadas imagens coloridas, compostas de uma combinação RGB das imagens nas três bandas, tanto para as imagens JHK quanto para as imagens do Spitzer. Estas imagens, junto com os diagramas, foram utilizadas para levantar candidatos a fontes ionizantes das regiões HII, assim como objetos ainda em estágios primordiais de evolução (CTTs e MYSOs). Estes dados também foram utilizados para associar à cada região HII um estágio evolutivo (de A até D, da região mais jovem à mais evoluída). Baseado na posição da Sequência Principal em diagramas cor-magnitude, foi possível comparar as distâncias cinemáticas com nossos dados. Além disso, quando possível, foram utilizadas distâncias de regiões HII determinadas por paralaxe espectrofotométrica (disponíveis na literatura) e utilizando duas leis de extinção interestelar extremas mostrou-se que estas distâncias são menores que suas contrapartidas cinemáticas, e estão em acordo com distâncias determinadas por outros métodos, como por paralaxe trigonométrica. Sabendo que estas regiões de formação estelar seguem a dinâmica do gás, o mapeamento da distribuição destas regiões permite checar a estrutura espiral da Via Láctea. / In this work, a near infrared photometric catalog of 35 HII regions that belongs to the Galactic plane is presented. This spectral range is useful since the wavelengths are long enough to have less influence of the interstellar extinction compared to the visible domain, and they are small enough to still show stellar photospheric features. Images of these HII regions in the J, H and K-band together with IRAC-Spitzer images (channels 4.5, 5.8 and 8.0 m) were used. After the photometry in the JHK images, color-color and color-magnitude diagrams were constructed. These two group of images (JHK and 4.5, 5.8 and 8.0 m) colored in a RGB combination were used, together with the diagrams, to identify the ionizing sources candidates, as well as objects still embedded in their natal cocoon (CTTs and MYSOs). An evolutionary stage to these regions (from A to D, from the younger region to the more evolved) was inferred based on the images and diagrams. These diagrams were also used to infer if the kinematic distance is correct, based on the Main Sequence location. Non-kinematic distances to several HII regions, when it was possible, were collected from the literature. Using two extreme interstellar extinction laws, it was possible to compare these distances with the kinematic results. These non-kinematic distances are lower than that from kinematic techniques. Also, these distance discrepancies are in agreement with distances derived by others methodologies, as trigonometric parallax. Since these star forming regions follow the gas dynamics, mapping their distribution along the Galaxy allows to check the spiral pattern of the Milky Way.

L’extraction du moment cinétique au sein des disques protostellaires est le processus clé qui détermine la masse finale accrétée par une étoile, ainsi que les conditions de formation de son cortège planétaire. Il a été proposé que les jets protostellaires pourraient jouer un rôle essentiel dans cette extraction, via un processus magnétohydrodynamique (MHD). L’objectif principal de ce travail de thèse est de mettre à profit le gain révolutionnaire en résolution et en sensibilité apporté par l’interféromètre submillimétrique ALMA afin de clarifier le processus d’accrétion-éjection à l’œuvre dans les protoétoiles. Cette pro- blématique est abordée selon trois axes complémentaires i) confrontation des modèles théoriques de vent de disque MHD à la dynamique du jet de HH212 observé par ALMA à haute résolution angulaire. Je présente la découverte de signatures de rotation en SO/SO2 dans le jet qui, avec la dynamique de SiO, sont cohérentes avec un vent de disque MHD lancé entre 0.05 et 40au. ii) étude analytique et numérique de l’impact de la variabilité d’un jet rapide pulsant sur un vent de disque. J’identifie des signatures observationnelles de la présence d’un vent de disque à partir de l’étude morphologique et cinématique des coquilles de choc d’étrave. iii) signatures chimiques d’un jet lancé en deçà de la région de sublimation des poussières (∼ 0.2 au). Je montre que malgré la forte irradiation du jet et l’absence de poussière, des molécules telles que SiO ou CO peuvent se former efficace- ment à partir d’une faible fraction de H2. Ce scénario pourra être confronté aux futures observations JWST. / The question of angular momentum extraction from protoplanetary disks (hereafter PPDs) is fundamental in understanding the accretion process in young stars and the formation conditions of planets. Pioneering semi-analytical work, followed by a growing body of magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) simulations, have shown that when a significant vertical magnetic field is present, MHD disk winds (hereafter MHD-DWs) can develop and ex- tract some or all of the angular momentum flux required for accretion. The aim of this PhD thesis is to exploit the unprecedented capabilities provided by ALMA to clarify the accretion-ejection process in protostars. This goal is achieved following three approaches: 1) comparison of MHD-DW models with the kinematics of HH 212 jet observed by ALMA at high angular resolution. I report the discovery of a rotating SO/SO2 wind consistent with a MHD-DWs launched out to ∼40 au with SiO tracing dust-free streamlines launched from 0.05−0.3 au. 2) Analytical and numerical study of the interaction between a pulsat- ing inner jet embedded in a stationary disk wind. Observational signatures are identified from the morphology and the kinematics of bow-shock shells. 3) Chemical signatures of a jet launched inside the dust sublimation radius (∼ 0.2 au). I show that despite the strong X-FUV field and the absence of dust, molecules like SiO or CO can form efficiently from a small fraction of H2. This scenario will be confronted to JWST observations.

Les étoiles se forment par effondrement gravitationnel de condensations pré-stellaires. Le jeune embryon stellaire (phase Classe 0) croît en masse par l'accrétion progressive de l'enveloppe de gaz et de poussières dans lequel il est enfoui. Par conservation du moment cinétique, si le moment du coeur pré-stellaire est totalement transféré à l'embryon pendant la phase d'accrétion, la force gravitationnelle ne peut contrer la force centrifuge et l'embryon se fragmente prématurément. Pour former une étoile comme notre Soleil, l'enveloppe en rotation doit nécessairement réduire son moment cinétique de 5 à 10 ordres de grandeur en l'évacuant ou en le redistribuant. L'un des principaux défis de la formation stellaire est de quantifier l'ampleur de ce "problème du moment cinétique" et d'identifier les mécanismes responsables de la redistribution du moment.L'objectif de cette thèse est d'étudier la cinématique des enveloppes proto-stellaires de Classe 0 afin d'établir leurs distributions de moment cinétique. Pour cela, j'ai utilisé des observations de raies moléculaires à haute résolution angulaire de l'Interféromètre du Plateau de Bure et du télescope de 30m de l'IRAM issues du large programme CALYPSO (Continuum and Lines in Young Protostellar Objects, PI : Ph. André) pour un échantillon de 12 proto-étoiles de Classe 0 à une distance d<400 pc. Cette analyse a permis de mesurer des mouvements de rotation différentielle et d'établir, pour la première fois, des distributions radiales du moment cinétique spécifique sur une grande gamme d'échelles (~50-10000 au) dans 11 des 12 enveloppes proto-stellaires de l'échantillon. Deux régimes distincts ont ainsi été mis en exergue: un profil constant à petites échelles (<1600 au) et une augmentation du moment avec le rayon aux grandes échelles (1600-10000 au).Le profil constant montre que la matière participant directement à la formation de l'étoile possède un moment cinétique spécifique (~5 10^-4 km/s pc, <1600 au) similaire à celui observé dans les petits disques entourant les étoiles T-Tauri.Les gradients de vitesse observés aux grandes échelles (>3000 au), historiquement utilisés pour mesurer la rotation des coeurs et quantifier le problème du moment cinétique, ne sont pas dus à la pure rotation des enveloppe proto-stellaires, mais sont dominés par d'autres mécanismes. Plusieurs scénarios sont donc discutés pour interpréter le changement de régime dans les profils de moment cinétique aux échelles >1600 au: une empreinte des conditions initiales de la phase pré-stellaire, un changement de mécanismes dominants (contre-rotation, transition effondrement-rotation) ou l'influence de la dynamique des filaments interstellaires (turbulence, effondrement, chocs) dans lesquels les proto-étoiles sont enfouies. / Stars form via the gravitational collapse of a pre-stellar condensation. The young stellar embryo (Class 0 phase) mass increases via the progressive accretion of the gaseous and dusty envelope within which it is buried. As a direct consequence of the angular momentum conservation, if the angular momentum of the pre-stellar core is totally transferred to the central embryo during the accretion phase, the gravitational force can not counteract the centrifugal force and the embryo fragments prematurely before reaching the main sequence. To form a star such as our Sun, the rotating envelope needs to reduce its angular momentum by 5 to 10 orders of magnitude by ejecting or redistributing it. One of the main challenges of stellar formation is to quantify the amplitude of this "angular momentum problem" and identify the mechanisms responsible for the angular momentum redistribution.The goal of this PhD thesis is to study the kinematics of Class 0 protostellar envelopes in order to probe the distribution of their angular momentum. To do this, I used high-resolution observations of molecular lines with the Plateau de Bure Interferometer and the 30m telescope at IRAM taken as part of the large programme CALYPSO (Continuum and Lines in Young Protostellar Objects, PI : Ph. André). The sample gathers 12 Class 0 protostars with distances d<400 pc. This analysis allows to measure differential rotation motions and provides, for the first time in a large sample, robust constraints on the radial distributions of specific angular momentum in a large range of scales (~50-10000 au) for 11 of the 12 protostellar envelopes targeted in the sample. Two distinct regimes are revealed: a constant profile at small scales (<1600 au) and an increasing of the angular momentum at larger radii (1600-10000 au).The constant profile shows that the specific angular momentum (~5 10-4 km/s pc, <1600 au) of the material directly involved in the star formation is similar to the value observed in the small disks surrounding the T-Tauri stars.Velocity gradients observed on large scales (>3000 au) - that are historically used to measure the rotation of the core and quantify the angular momentum problem - are not due to pure envelope rotation but can be dominated by other mechanisms. I discuss several scenarios in order to interpret this change of regime in the angular momentum profiles at scales >1600 au: the imprints of the initial conditions of the pre-stellar phase, a change of dominant mechanisms (counter-rotation, transition between infall and rotation) or the influence of the interstellar filament dynamics (turbulence, collapse, shocks) within which protostars are buried.

We use Integral Field Unit (IFU) data for a subset of galaxies in the MaNGA (Mapping Nearby Galaxies at Apache Point Observatory) sample to investigate the environmental dependence of H-alpha properties for nearby star-forming galaxies. We characterize the non-AGN H-alpha emission for galaxies living in different host environments with radial gradient measurements, half-light radii, as well as measures of concentration and asymmetry. We find that global specific star formation rates (sSFR) are lower in nearby star-forming galaxies in groups and clusters compared to those in the field, and the lowest in high density environments such as group or cluster centres. From the resolved data we find that the overall reduction in H-alpha emission in star-forming galaxies in denser environments occurs across the face of these galaxies, suggesting starvation as a primary quenching mechanism. We further find that H-alpha disks are truncated in group galaxies that live nearer the center of the halo compared to those in the outer halo or field, which may be due to ram pressure stripping in these dense environments. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc) / In order to understand the evolution of galaxies over time, it is necessary to determine the relative importance of external and internal factors that affect galaxy star formation. We know that galaxies in dense environments have less star formation (are quenched) compared to galaxies in the field. However, the mechanisms that dominate this quenching are less well constrained. We use a sample of galaxies in the Mapping Nearby Galaxies at Apache Point Observatory (MaNGA) survey to investigate the dependence of star formation on other galaxy properties as well as properties of the host environment. We find that galaxies have reduced H-alpha emission, a signature of star formation, across the entire face of the galaxy in groups and clusters compared to galaxies in the field. We further find that galaxies nearer the centre of the group or cluster halo have truncated H-alpha disks compared to galaxies in the outer part of the halo or in the field.

Galaxy formation is a continuous process that started only a few hundred million yearsafter the Big Bang. The first galaxies were very volatile, with bursts of star formationand disorganised gas motions. However, even as these galaxies evolved to have orderlyrotating gas discs, the gas within the disc, referred to as the interstellar medium (ISM),still remained highly turbulent. In fact, the ISM is supersonically turbulent, meaning thatthe disorganised gas motion exceeds the speed of sound in the medium. This supersonicturbulence has been connected to several crucial properties related to galaxy evolution; forexample, increasing (and decreasing in some regions) the ISM gas density, star formation,and gas mixing. Many observation have shown that all of the gas phases in the ISM experience su-personic levels of turbulence, with line widths (an observational method to quantify theamount of turbulence) as high as σg ≲ 100 km s−1 in high-redshift (younger) disc galaxies,while local quiescent discs have σg ≲ 40 km s−1 . However, the ISM contains a variety ofgas phases that cover a wide range of temperatures and densities, which exhibit differentlevels of turbulence. For example, the warm ionised gas phase represents the upper limitsquoted above, while colder denser gas only reaches σg ≲ 40 km s−1 and σg ≲ 15 km s−1 inhigh-redshift and local galaxies, respectively. The physical processes driving this turbulence are not fully understood, but a combi-nation of stellar feedback (e.g. supernova) and gravitational instability (e.g. during cloudcollapse) have been suggested to provide a majority of the turbulent energy. In particular,stellar feedback is crucial in the formation of warm ionised gas and may therefore have asignificant contribution on the turbulence within ionised gas. Furthermore, heterogeneousdata of widely different galaxies (in terms of e.g. mass and size) at different resolutions(which causes artificial line broadening) complicates understanding the underlying cause. A commonly used tracer of ionised gas is the Hα emission line and has been usedextensively in high-redshift surveys. However, the contribution of the Hα signal comesfrom two primary sources: the radiatively ionised regions around massive newborn starsembedded in molecular gas (called H II regions) and diffuse ionised gas (DIG) filling theentire galactic disc. Observations have found that these two sources contribute, on average,roughly the same amount to the Hα signal (although with a large spread), but the levelsof turbulence is starkly different; with the DIG being roughly 2-3 times more turbulethan the gas in H II regions. Numerical simulations have come a long way and are now able to simulate entire discgalaxies at parsec-scale resolution (in regions of interest). Furthermore, galaxy simulationshave been able to reproduce the level of turbulence observed in local and high-redshiftgalaxies. Direct comparisons between numerical and observational studies are crucial tounderstand the relevant physics driving observed correlations. However, numerical andobservational work have different data available and the reduction/analysis varies betweenauthors, and so diligence is required to perform qualitative comparisons. In this work, I perform numerical simulations to investigate ISM turbulence in differentgas phases. My simulations model a Milky Way-like galaxy at two different redshifts(using gas fraction as a proxy for redshift) and with/without stellar feedback physics, toevaluate its impact. I perform mock observations to explore the relation between the starformation rate and turbulence, and investigate what is driving this relation. Additionally, Ianalyse the Hα emission line and compare the contribution in intensity and line broadening(turbulence) from H II regions and DIG. / Galaxbildning är en kontinuerlig process som började bara några hundra miljoner år efterBig Bang. De första galaxerna var mycket volatila, med utbrott av stjärnbildning ochoorganiserade gasrörelser. Men även efter att dessa galaxer utvecklade ordnade roterandegasskivor, förblev gasen inom skivan, kallat det interstellära mediet (ISM), fortfarandehögt turbulent. Faktum är att ISM är supersoniskt turbulent, vilket innebär att de oorgan-iserade gasrörelserna överstiger ljudets hastighet i mediet. Denna supersoniska turbulenshar kopplats till flera avgörande egenskaper relaterade till galaxutveckling; till exempel,öka (och i vissa regioner minska) ISM:ets gas densitet, stjärnbildning och gasblandning. Många observationer har visat att alla gasfaser i ISM upplever supersoniska nivåer avturbulens, med linjebredder (en observationsmetod för att kvantifiera mängden turbulens)så höga som σg ≲ 100 km s−1 i hög-rödförskjutnings (dvs. yngre) skivgalaxer, medanlokala lugna skivor har σg ≲ 40 km s−1. Emellertid innehåller ISM olika gasfaser somtäcker ett brett spektrum av temperaturer och densiteter, vilka uppvisar olika nivåer avturbulens. Till exempel representerar den varma joniserade gasfasen de övre gränsernasom nämns ovan, medan kallare, tätare gas endast når σg ≲ 40 km s−1 och σg ≲ 15 km s−1i hög-rödförskjutnings och lokala galaxer, respektive. De fysikaliska processer som driver denna turbulens är inte fullt förstådda, men enkombination av stellär feedback (t.ex. supernova) och gravitationsinstabilitet (t.ex. undermolnkollaps) har föreslagits ge en majoritet av den turbulenta energin. I synnerhet ärstellär feedback avgörande för bildandet av varm joniserad gas och kan därför ha ettbetydande bidrag till turbulensen inom joniserad gas. Dessutom komplicerar heterogenadata från mycket olika galaxer (i termer av t.ex. massa och storlek) vid olika upplösningar(vilket orsakar konstgjord linjebreddning) förståelsen av den underliggande orsaken. En vanligt använd spårare av joniserad gas är Hα-emissionslinjen och har använts om-fattande i undersökningar vid hög rödförskjutning. Emellertid kommer bidraget från Hα-signalen från två primära källor: de strålningsjoniserade regionerna runt massiva nyföddastjärnor inbäddade i molekylär gas (kallade H II -regioner) och diffus joniserad gas (DIG) som fyller hela den galaktiska skivan. Observationer har funnit att dessa två källor bidrar,i genomsnitt, ungefär lika mycket till Hα-signalen (dock med en stor spridning), mennivåerna av turbulens är markant olika; med DIG ungefär 2-3 gånger mer turbulent ängasen i H II-regioner. Numeriska simuleringar har kommit långt och kan nu simulera hela skivgalaxer medparsec-skala upplösning (i områden av intresse). Dessutom har galaxsimuleringar kunnatåterskapa den nivå av turbulens som observerats i lokala och hög-rödförskjutningsgalaxer. Men numeriska och observationsbaserade arbeten har olika tillgängliga data och reduk-tion/analys varierar mellan författare, och därför krävs noggrannhet för att göra kvalita-tiva jämförelser. I detta arbete utför jag numeriska simuleringar för att undersöka ISM-turbulens i olikagasfaser. Mina simuleringar modellerar jag en Vintergatan-liknande galax vid två olikarödförskutningar (användande gasfraktion som en proxy för rödförskutning) och med/utanfysik för stellär feedback, för att utvärdera dess påverkan. Jag utforskar förhållandetmellan stjärnbildningshastigheten och turbulensen, och undersöker vad som driver dettaförhållande. Dessutom analyserar jag Hα-emissionslinjen och jämför bidraget i intensitetoch linjebreddning (turbulens) från H II-regioner och DIG.

I present a spectroscopic study of the molecular gas in the Whirlpool Galaxy (M51) and the Antennae Galaxies (NGC 4038/39) using data from the Herschel Space Observatory (Herschel) and the Atacama Large Millime- ter/submillimeter Array (ALMA). Using data from the Herschel Spectral and Photometric Imaging REceiver (SPIRE) Fourier Transform Spectrometer (FTS), I perform an excitation analysis to determine the physical characteris- tics (temperature, density, column density) of the cold and warm molecular gas across both systems. I do not find significant variation in the cold molecular gas across an individual system or between the systems. The warm molecular gas temperature is greater in NGC 4038/39 than in M51, while the density in both M51 and the nucleus of NGC 4038 is greater than the rest of the Anten- nae system. Both galaxies exhibit a similar fraction of warm to cold molecular gas. I compare Herschel SPIRE-FTS data to models of photon dominated regions (PDRs) to determine the strength of the background far ultraviolet field (G0) within both systems and find little variation across each system. I find that PDRs alone can explain the observed Herschel SPIRE-FTS data in both systems. Using ALMA observations of dense molecular gas tracers in NGC 4038/39, I investigate the physical processes affecting the dense molecular gas. Ratios of various molecular gas tracers suggest that the contributions of mechanical heating relative to PDR heating are similar across the entire system. The dense gas fraction in the nucleus of NGC 4038 and the nucleus of NGC 4039 is higher than in the overlap region, which I attribute to an increase in the stellar potential within the two nuclei. Furthermore, I find evidence for an increased cosmic ray rate in the overlap region of NGC 4038/39 relative to the two nuclei, which I attribute to an increased supernova rate in the overlap region. Most of the molecular gas in M51 and NGC 4038/39 is in the form of PDRs, while the increased temperature of the warm molecular gas in NGC iii 4038/39 compared to M51 is likely due to an increase in the mechanical heating from both supernova and stellar winds and the ongoing merger. Furthermore, a comparison of these results to previous studies of the interacting galaxy M82 and the late-stage merger Arp 220 suggests that mergers and interactions have a greater effect on the warm molecular gas compared to the cold molecular gas. The results from this thesis help to further our understanding of the effects of merging and interacting galaxies on molecular gas, while helping understand differences between interacting galaxies and merging galaxies. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

<p>We use numerical simulations to examine the fragmentation of protostellar discs via gravitational instability (GI), a proposed formation mechanism for gas-giant planets and brown dwarfs. To accurately model heating and cooling, we have implemented radiative transfer (RT) in the TreeSPH code Gasoline, using the flux-limited diffusion approximation coupled to photosphere boundary cooling. We present 3D radiation hydrodynamics simulations of discs that are gravitationally unstable in the inner 40 AU; these discs do not fragment because the cooling times are too long. In prior work, one of these discs was found to fragment; however, we demonstrate that this resulted from an over-estimate of the photosphere cooling rate. Fragmentation via GI does not appear to be a viable formation mechanism in the inner 40 AU.</p> <p>We also present simulations of GI in the outer regions of discs, near 100 AU, where we find GI to be a viable formation mechanism. We give a detailed framework that explains the link between cooling and fragmentation: spiral arms grow on a scale determined by the linear gravitational instability, have a characteristic width determined by the balance of heating and cooling, and fragment if this width is less than twice their Hill radius. This framework is consistent with the fragmentation and initial fragment masses observed in our simulations. We apply the framework to discs modelled with the commonly-used beta-prescription cooling and calculate the critical cooling rate for the first time, with results that are consistent with previous estimates measured from numerical experiments.</p> <p>RT is fundamentally important in the star formation process. Non-ionizing radiation heats the gas and prevents small-scale fragmentation. Ionizing radiation from massive stars is an important feedback mechanism and may disrupt giant molecular clouds. We present methods and tests for our implementation of ionizing radiation, using the Optically-Thin Variable Eddington Tensor method.</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

<p>Protostellar discs are generally thought to drive molecular outflows and jets observed in star forming regions, but there has been some debate as to how they form. The details of the driving and collimation of outflows help determine how much mass is cleared out and how much energy is fed back into the surroundings. Recently it has been argued that the magnetic brake is so strong that early protostellar disks cannot form.</p> <p>We have performed 3D ideal magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) simulations of collapsing Bonnor–Ebert spheres, employing sink particles within an AMR grid and using a cooling function to model radiative cooling of the gas. This allows us to follow the formation and early evolution of the accretion disc (2−8)×10⁴ years further into the Class 0 phase of its evolution. We form a rotationally dominated disc with a radius of 100 AU embedded inside a transient, unstable, flattened, rotating structure extending out to 2000 AU. The inner disc becomes unstable to a warping instability due to the magnetic structure of the outflow, warping 30 deg with respect to the rotation–axis by the end of the simulation. The disc is unstable to a Parker instability and sheds magnetic loops, degrading the orientation of the mean threading field. This reduces and locally reverses the magnetic braking torque of the large scale field back upon the disc. The reduction of magnetic braking allows a nearly Keplerian disc to form and may be the key way in which low mass stellar systems produce rotationally dominated discs. We discuss the relevance of our disc misalignment concerning the formation of mis–aligned hot Jupiters.</p> <p>Protostellar outflows are implicated in clearing mass from collapsing cores, and limiting the final mass of newly formed stars. The details of the driving and collimation of outflows help determine how much mass is cleared out and how much energy is fed back into the surroundings. The simulations generate outflows which are precessing, kinked, contain internal shocks and extend to a scale of 0.1 pc end–to–end. Our disc–wind theory describes magneto–centrifugal driving throughout the outflow bubble. The bulk properties of the outflow agree well with observations. The outflow has two components, a larger low speed wind (v_r < 1.5 km/s) dominated by a toroidal magnetic field Bφ, and an inner centrifugally driven jet dominated by Bp with speeds up to 20 km/s. The ratio of mass flux from the disk surface com- pared to accretion in the disk is measured to be M_out/M_in ∼ 0.1 from the inner component, whereas in the outer component M_out/M_in ∼ 1.0. The jet is misaligned and precesses as the disc warps by 30 deg with respect to the z–axis. We measure star formation efficiencies of ε_core = 0.63 (and growing), higher than theoretical predictions of ε_core = 0.29−0.39 and observations ε_core = 0.33.</p> <p>These new results reported in this thesis, show that disks can form in strongly magnetized media, in agreement with the observations - and that outflows are not as efficient in clearing away collapsing gas as has been assumed in various theoretical models. Both of these results have important implications for disk formation, and the origin of the IMF, as described in this work.</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)