Nesta tese é apresentado um catálogo fotométrico no infravermelho próximo de 35 Regiões HII, todas pertencentes ao disco Galáctico. Esta faixa espectral é útil uma vez que os comprimentos de onda são grandes o suficiente para se ter uma baixa extinção interestelar comparada ao visível, e são pequenos o suficiente para diagnosticar as fotosferas estelares. Foram obtidas imagens nas bandas J, H e K e imagens do Spitzer nos canais de 3,5, 5,8 e 8,0 m. Após a fotometria nas imagens JHK, foi possível construir diagramas cor-cor e cor-magnitude. Foram utilizadas imagens coloridas, compostas de uma combinação RGB das imagens nas três bandas, tanto para as imagens JHK quanto para as imagens do Spitzer. Estas imagens, junto com os diagramas, foram utilizadas para levantar candidatos a fontes ionizantes das regiões HII, assim como objetos ainda em estágios primordiais de evolução (CTTs e MYSOs). Estes dados também foram utilizados para associar à cada região HII um estágio evolutivo (de A até D, da região mais jovem à mais evoluída). Baseado na posição da Sequência Principal em diagramas cor-magnitude, foi possível comparar as distâncias cinemáticas com nossos dados. Além disso, quando possível, foram utilizadas distâncias de regiões HII determinadas por paralaxe espectrofotométrica (disponíveis na literatura) e utilizando duas leis de extinção interestelar extremas mostrou-se que estas distâncias são menores que suas contrapartidas cinemáticas, e estão em acordo com distâncias determinadas por outros métodos, como por paralaxe trigonométrica. Sabendo que estas regiões de formação estelar seguem a dinâmica do gás, o mapeamento da distribuição destas regiões permite checar a estrutura espiral da Via Láctea. / In this work, a near infrared photometric catalog of 35 HII regions that belongs to the Galactic plane is presented. This spectral range is useful since the wavelengths are long enough to have less influence of the interstellar extinction compared to the visible domain, and they are small enough to still show stellar photospheric features. Images of these HII regions in the J, H and K-band together with IRAC-Spitzer images (channels 4.5, 5.8 and 8.0 m) were used. After the photometry in the JHK images, color-color and color-magnitude diagrams were constructed. These two group of images (JHK and 4.5, 5.8 and 8.0 m) colored in a RGB combination were used, together with the diagrams, to identify the ionizing sources candidates, as well as objects still embedded in their natal cocoon (CTTs and MYSOs). An evolutionary stage to these regions (from A to D, from the younger region to the more evolved) was inferred based on the images and diagrams. These diagrams were also used to infer if the kinematic distance is correct, based on the Main Sequence location. Non-kinematic distances to several HII regions, when it was possible, were collected from the literature. Using two extreme interstellar extinction laws, it was possible to compare these distances with the kinematic results. These non-kinematic distances are lower than that from kinematic techniques. Also, these distance discrepancies are in agreement with distances derived by others methodologies, as trigonometric parallax. Since these star forming regions follow the gas dynamics, mapping their distribution along the Galaxy allows to check the spiral pattern of the Milky Way.

Mon travail de thèse présente deux types de structures denses : des sources froides compactes détectées par Planck et des condensations denses dans une région de photodissociation (PDR), à savoir la Barre d’Orion. Les deux types de structures sont étroitement liées à la formation des étoiles. Les sources froides sont étudiées comme objets potentiellement gravitationnellement liés, c’est-à-dire comme objets préstellaires. La Barre d’Orion est intéressante en tant que PDR à fort champ UV (G0 ∼104) prototypique, avec plusieurs disques protoplanétaires connus, éclairés par les jeunes étoiles du Trapèze.D’abord, je présente un article publié dans A&A: The Physical state of selected cold clumps. Dans cet article, nous avons comparé les observations du continuum de la poussière par Herschel provenant de l’open time key program Galactic Cold Cores (Herschel) aux observations de raies moléculaires par le radiotélescope de 20-m de l’Onsala Space Observatory en Suède. Les objets ont été sélectionnés en fonction de leur luminosités et faibles températures de couleur des poussières (T∼10−15 K). Nous avons calculé les masses du viriel et de Bonnor-Ebert et les avons comparées aux masses déduites à partir des observations. Les résultats indiquent que la plupart des objets froids observés ne sont pas nécessairement préstellaires.Dans mon étude de la Barre d’Orion, j’utilise des observations de l’instrumentPACS d’Herschel du programme Unveiling the origin and excitation mechanisms of the warm CO, OH and CH+ . Je présente des cartes de 110” ×110” du cation méthylidyne (CH+ J=3-2), des doublets de OH à 84 μm, et des raies de CO á hauts J (J=19-18). C’est la première fois que ces traceurs des PDR ont présentés avec une telle résolution spatiale et un tel rapport signal-sur-bruit.La répartition spatiale de CH+ et OH montre la même structure de la Barre qui a été vue dans d’autres observations. La morphologie du CH+ et H2 confirme que la formation et l’excitation de CH+ est fortement dépendante du H2 excité vibrationnellement. Le maximum d’émission de OH84 μm correspond à un objet brillant jeune, identifié comme le disque protoplanetaire 244-440.Je présente également des transitions rotationnelles de CO de moyenne (∼20 K) et haute (∼1000 K) énergie. La morphologie de l’émission du CO rotationnellement excité est corrélée avec la présence des petites structures denses irradiées. Nous établissons le lien entre le coeur de ces structures, tracé en CS J=2-1 par Lee et al. (2013) et H 13 CN par Lis and Schilke (2003) et le bord de la PDR, tracé en CO J=19-18 et le H 2 vibrationnellement excitée. Nous montrons également que le CO est principalement excité par le chauffage UV. / In this thesis I present a study of two kinds of dense ISM structures: compact cold sources detected by Planck and dense condensations in a photodissociation region (PDR), namely the Orion Bar detected by ground-based and Herschel telescopes. Both kinds of structures are closely related to star formation. The cold sources are investigated as potentially gravitationally bound, prestellar, objects. The Orion Bar is a highly FUV-illuminated (G0=104) prototypical PDR, with several known protoplanetary disks, illuminated by the young Trapezium stars.First I introduce a paper published in A&A: The Physical state of selected cold clumps. In this paper we compared the Herschel dust continuum observations from the open time key program Galactic Cold Cores to ground based molecular line observations from the 20-m radio telescope of the Onsala Space Observatory in Sweden. The clumps were selected based on their brightness and low dust color temperatures (T=10-15 K). We calculated the virial and Bonnor-Ebert masses and compared them to the masses calculated from the observations. The results indicate that most of the observed cold clumps are not necessarily prestellar.Then I move on to the warm and dense condensations of the ISM. In my study of the Orion Bar, I use observations from PACS instrument on board Herschel from the open time program Unveiling the origin and excitation mechanisms of the warm CO, OH and CH+. I present maps of 110”x110” of the methylidyne cation (CH+ J=3-2), OH doublets at 84 µm, and high-J CO (J=19-18). This is the first time that these PDR tracers are presented in such a high spatial resolution and high signal-to-noise ratio. The CH+ and OH have critical densities (1010 cm-3) and upper level energy temperatures (250 K). In addition the endothermicity of the CH+ + H2 reaction (4300 K) that forms CH+ is comparable to the activation barrier of the O + H2 reaction (4800 K) forming OH. Given these similarities it is interesting to compare their emission. The spatial distribution of CH+ and OH shows the same clumpy structure of the Bar that has been seen in other observations. The morphology of CH+ and H2 confirms that CH+ formation and excitation is strongly dependent on the vibrationally excited H2, while OH is not. The peak in the OH 84 µm emission corresponds to a bright young object, identified as the externally illuminated protoplanetary disk 244-440.Finally, I study the high-J CO in the Orion Bar. I also introduce low- and mid-J CO observations of the area. The high-J CO morphology shows a clumpy structure in the Bar and we establish a link between the dense core of the clumps, traced in CS J=2-1 by Lee et al. (2013) and in H13CN by Lis and Schilke (2003). We also show that the high-J CO is mainly excited by the UV heating.

O mecanismo de formação de estrelas de alta massa é um dos problemas fundamentais em Astrofísica e um dos menos compreendidos. Duas teorias predizem a formação destes objetos, que se formariam via i) colisão de estrelas de baixa massa, ou ii) acreção por disco circunstelar. Atualmente, ambas as teorias carecem de testes observacionais críticos. Não obstante, o número de estrelas de alta massa jovens já identificadas na Galáxia corresponde a uma fração muito menor do que o esperado pela função de massa inicial. Este trabalho apresenta um estudo observacional de candidatos a MYSOs, selecionados a partir do levantamento Red MSX Source. Observações de 376 objetos nos filtros estreitos do H2 em 2.12 mícrons e num contínuo adjacente foram realizadas para identificar jatos moleculares colimados e 296 delas são apresentadas nesse trabalho. As observações do hemisfério Norte foram realizadas com o telescópio CFHT (Havaí) enquanto os objetos do hemisfério Sul, foram observados com o telescópio SOAR (Chile). A análise dos mapas de emissão em H2 permitiu concluir que 150 dos 296 objetos (51%) estão associados a emissões extensas em H2, e 62 delas foram classificadas como emissões polares. A análise da razão de aspecto das estruturas identificadas mostra que as emissões associadas a fontes com maior luminosidade apresentam baixo grau de colimação, tal como sugere o cenário de geração dos jatos a partir de ventos emanados pela pressão de radiação do disco circunstelar. A baixa fração de emissões polares (apenas 21% da amostra) indica que o tempo de vida dessas estruturas devem ser curtos. As evidências observacionais encontradas nesse trabalho corroboram o cenário de acreção via disco circunstelar e invalidam o modelo formação via coalescência de estrelas de baixa massa, que requer ambientes relativamente densos e não é capaz de produzir jatos colimados. / Very few massive stars in early formation stages were clearly identified in our Galaxy. The formation process of these objects is still unclear and two theories predict the formation of massive stars: i) by merging of low mass stars or ii) by an accretion disk. There are no critical observational evidences to choose between them. The lack of observational evidences combined with the small number of known massive stars in formation in our Galaxy does not allow us to choose between these scenarios. We present a near-infrared survey of MYSOs candidates selected from the Red MSX Source survey. Such catalog is based on an accurate revision of distances and luminosities, overcoming the limitations and failures in previous searches of this kind. 376 targets were observed through the H2 narrow-band filter at 2.12 microns and in the continuum to identify collimated molecular jets. 296 targets were successfully processed using the THELI pipeline and are presented. Observations in the Northern Hemisphere were carried at the CFHT telescope (Hawaii) while the Southern targets were observed with the Soar Telescope (Chile). The results show that 150 of the 296 sources display extended H2 emission and 62 of them are polar. The analysis of the aspect ratio of the structures indicates that emissions associated with higher luminosity sources have low degree of collimation. This is in agreement with the scenario of the radiation pressure-driven outflows from the circunstellar discs. The low fraction of sources associated with polar jets (21%) indicates a short timescale of such structures. The observational evidences found on this work support the accretion scenario and show that coalescence of low-mass stars (which may require relatively dense environments and is not expected to produce jet-like structures) is not likely to explain most of the studied MYSOs candidates.

Abstract In this report I present a study of possible age gradients in the Green Pea galaxy J145735.13+223201.8 to be able to conclude if there is an extended star forming history in such a galaxy. Data are coming from two different sources, highly resolved images in four different wavelengths of stars in the galaxy, and of nebular gas in a narrow band Ha Balmer line filter, from the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), as well as spectral line information from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS). I compare the observations with stellar population models from two different libraries, Yggdrasil and Starburst99. Due to the highly resolved images from HST this is one of the first studies of spatially resolved stellar populations in a Green Pea galaxy. With the help from these spatially resolved images it was possible to study star clumps independently from each other. This would not be possible when using only data from SDSS. In this way it was possible to conclude an age difference between the centre of the galaxy and its outskirts. I found that the galaxy has an age gradient at a confidence level greater than 95%.

Des nuages moléculaires aux étoiles, l'ensemble des stades d'évolution des étoiles jeunes peuvent être observés dans le domaine submillimétrique. A cette fin, le télescope Herschel a observé, dans le cadre d'un relevé de la Ceinture de Gould, plusieurs nuages moléculaires. Lorsque ces nuages se fragmentent, des coeurs denses, accumulant de la poussière et du gaz, se forment et se contractent. Nous avons effectué un relevé exhaustif des coeurs denses préstellaires dans le nuage moléculaire d'Ophiuchus qui apparaissent couplés avec des structures filamentaires dans le cadre du paradigme de la formation d'étoiles au sein de filaments interstellaires. La région n'était pas connue pour être filamentaire, malgré des alignements de protoétoiles observables. Ce nuage moléculaire présente la particularité d'être soumis à une rétroaction importante venant d'étoiles actives à proximité, visible dans la structure du nuage moléculaire. Oph B-11, mise en évidence par des observations interférométriques, est un précurseur de naine brune, de masse finale trop faible pour que l'étoile produite brûle de l'hydrogène. Leur mécanisme de formation est mal connu. Il faut caractériser et observer un premier candidat pré-naine brune. Oph B-11 a été détectée à proximité d'un choc proche, que nous avons caractérisé chimiquement. De plus, à plus haute résolution avec ALMA, nous avons montré l'environnement moléculaire structuré, contraint le mécanisme de formation de ce type d'objet. Ces observations dévoilent une série de chocs dans plusieurs traceurs, coïncidant avec la détection de la pré-naine brune, favorisant le scénario gravo-turbulent pour la formation des naines brunes. / From molecular clouds to stars, every step of the evolution of young stars can be observed in the submillimetric range. The Herschel Space Telescope observed, as part of the Herschel Gould Belt Survey, many molecular clouds.When these molecular clouds are fragmenting, dense prestellar cores accumulating dust and gaz are forming and contracting. We performed a census of prestellar dense cores in the Ophiuchus Molecular Cloud, which appear to be coupled with filamentary structures, as part of the paradigm of star-formation inside insterstellar filaments. The region was not previously known as filamentary, despite the observation of protostellar alignments.This molecular could is under the heavy feedback of active stars nearby seen in the structure of the molecular cloud.Oph B-11, detected with interferometric observations, is a brown dwarf precursor, which final mass will not be important enough for the final star to burn hydrogen. Their formation mechanism is not well constrained, we must find and characterize a first candidate pre-brown dwarf.Oph B-11 was detected along a nearby shock, we characterize chemically. Moreover, higher resolution studies with ALMA show a structured molecular environment, and help us constrain the mechanism of formation of this kind of objects. These observations show a series of shocks in differents tracers, spatially coincident with the detected position of the pre-brown dwarf, in favor of the gravo-turbulent scenario for the formation of brown dwarfs.

Les galaxies massives sont moins nombreuses que ce qui est attendu avec le modèle standard (le modèle Λ-CDM). Ceci ce traduit par une formation d’étoiles moins importante que prévue dans les galaxies. Pour expliquer celà, il est globalement accepté que des processus stoppent le formation d’étoiles. Pour les galaxies massives, ceci est expliqué par l’action des trous noirs supermassifs. En accrétant du gaz, le trou noir central produit de l’énergie et de l’impulsion. Quand l’accrétion devient importante, le trou noir forme un noyau actif de galaxie, et l’énergie peut ralentir la formation d’étoiles, par chauffage du gaz, de la turbulence, ou par ablation du gaz (feedback négatif). Cependant, il existe des cas de feedback positif qui favorise la formation d’étoiles en comprimant le gaz. En particulier, une partie des noyaux actifs produisent des jets de plasma qui sont observés en émission radio. Ces jets radio peuvent intéragir avec du gaz le long de leur direction de propagation. Des telles interactions sont susceptibles de déclencher de la formation d’étoiles (formation induite par les jets). Ma thèse porte sur les interactions jet-gaz dans des radio galaxies proches. J’ai étudié l’effet du jet sur l’efficacité de la formation d’étoiles pour des interactions à des échelles globales (quelques kiloparsecs) et intermédiaires (quelques centaines de parsecs). Pour celà, j’ai observé et cartographié le gaz moléculaire, qui est un élément clé de la formation d’étoiles. Cette phase froide est observable grâce aux équipements au sol actuels de radio astronomie, comme ALMA, APEX, NOEMA et le 30m de l’IRAM. / Massive galaxies are less abundant than predicted by the standard model of galaxy formation (the Λ-CDM model). This means that galaxies form less stars than expected. To explain this behaviour, it is commonly accepted that some processes are at play and quench star formation. For massive galaxies, it is explained by the feedback of the supermassive black holes. While accreting gas, the central black hole produces energy and momentum. When gas accretion becomes important, the black hole forms an active galactic nucleus, and the energy is expected to quench star formation, via gas heating, turbulence or gas removal (negative feedback). However, evidence is found of so-called AGN positive feedback that favours star formation by compressing the gas. In particular, a fraction of the AGN population produces jets of plasma that are observed in radio emission. These radio jets may interact with gas that is located along the direction of propagation. Such interactions are invoked to trigger star formation (jet-induced star formation). My PhD focused on the jet-gas interaction for nearby radio galaxies. I explored the effect of the jet on the star formation efficiency in such interactions at global (few kiloparsecs) and intermediate (few hundreds parsecs) scales. To do so, I searched and mapped the molecular gas (via CO emission lines) that is a key ingredient for star formation. This cold gas is observable using current radio astronomy ground-based facilities, like ALMA, APEX, NOEMA and the 30m telescope.

Spatially-resolved studies of nearby star-forming galaxies are essential to understand various physical and chemical phenomena at play in the interstellar medium in the galaxies, and consequently to obtain a comprehensive picture of galaxy formation and evolution. In this thesis, I perform spatially-resolved analyses of chemical abundances and star-formation in nearby star-forming galaxies - blue compact dwarf galaxies (BCDs) and spiral galaxies. I map various properties of H II regions and the surrounding gas within three BCDs, using integral field spectroscopic (IFS) data from the Gemini Multi-Object Spectrograph-North. While answering questions related to chemical homogeneity, ionisation mechanisms and stellar populations within BCDs, I address more profound issues, which go beyond the characterisation of studied BCDs and aim to explain global phenomena with broader implications. The BCD NGC 4449 hosts a metal-poor central star-forming region, which I explain by various scenarios related to the interplay between star-formation, metal-distribution and gas dynamics within galaxies. The BCD NGC 4670 shows an unusual negative relationship between the nitrogen-to-oxygen ratio and oxygen abundance at spatially-resolved scales. I explore this relation with chemical evolution models and by comparison to other star-forming galaxies and suggest that nitrogen enrichment, variations in star-formation efficiency or hydrodynamical effects may be responsible for the observed relation. For another BCD, SBS 1415+437, the spatially-resolved abundances on average agree with the integrated abundance, implying that low-redshift spatially-resolved results may be directly compared with unresolved high-redshift results. I study spiral galaxies to address long-standing issues related to the reliability of metallicity calibrators and the Schmidt Law of star-formation. Using IFS data of twenty-four spiral galaxies taken with the Multi-Unit Spectroscopic Explorer, I find that the current strong-line metallicity calibrators for H II regions are unsuitable for regions dominated by diffuse ionised gas (DIG). I devise new recipes for estimating the metal-content of the DIG. For another set of nine spiral galaxies, I use multi-wavelength data to show that the spatially-resolved Schmidt relation is very sensitive to the consideration of diffuse background, which is a component unrelated to the current star-formation. Removal of this component from the SFR tracers and the atomic gas results in similar local and global Schmidt relation. To conclude, the spatially-resolved analyses presented in this thesis have led to discoveries and further questions, which I will address in my ongoing and future works.

Recent large-scale mapping of dust continuum emission from star-forming clouds has revealed their hierarchical nature, which includes web-like filamentary structures that often harbor clumpy over-densities where new stars form. Understanding the motions of these structures and how they interact to form stars, however, can only be learned through observations of emission from their molecular gas. Observations of tracers such as ammonia (NH3), in particular, reveal the stability of dense gas structures against forces such as the inward pull of gravity and the outward push of their internal pressure, thus providing insights into whether or not those structures are likely to form stars in the future. Due to recent large-scale ammonia surveys that have mapped both nearby and distant clouds in the Galaxy, it is finally possible to investigate and compare the stability of star-forming structures in different environments. In this dissertation, we utilize ammonia survey data to provide one of the largest investigations to date into the stability of structures in star-forming regions. Dense gas structures have been identified in a self-consistent manner across a variety of star-forming regions and the environmental factors (e.g., the presence or lack of local filaments and heating by local massive stars) most influential to their stability were investigated. The analysis has revealed that dense gas structures identified by ammonia observations in nearby star-forming clouds tend to be gravitationally bound. In high-mass star-forming clouds, however, bound and unbound ammonia structures are equally likely. This result suggests that either gravity is more important to structure stability at the small scales probed in nearby clouds or ammonia is more widespread in high-mass star-forming regions. In addition, a new method to detect and measure emission with multiple velocity components along the line of sight has been developed. Based on convolutional neural networks and named Convnet Line-fitting Of Emission-line Regions (CLOVER), the method is markedly faster than traditional analysis techniques, requires no input assumptions about the emission, and has demonstrated high classification accuracy. Since high-mass star-forming regions are often plagued by multiple velocity components along the line of sight, CLOVER will improve the accuracy of stability measurements for many clouds of interest to the star formation community. / Graduate

Supernovae (SNe) and more specifically Core-Collapsed SNe (CC SNe) are signatures of on-going star formation (SF), and higher star formation rates. In this project, we perform a study of all SNe ever discovered inside a specific type of galaxy: a type-1 Active Galactic Nucleus (AGN1). We calculate the SN detection fraction for CC SNe and thermonuclear SNe in AGN1. In AGN1, inclination of the host galaxy and the radial distance of the SN to the center of the galaxy are displayed. As a second goal, we gather all SNe from the OpenSN catalogue found close to an AGN1, classify them and compare them with the full sample of OpenSN catalogue host galaxies. Results:We found and calculated the SN detection fraction of AGN1s. We found 16 SNe exploding in 13 different AGN1 host galaxies. The CC/Ia SN ratio is ~ 0.78. Comparing by similar morphology, the AGN1-host galaxies with all the host galaxies from OpenSN, we see that the detection fractions are higher in spiral AGN1 hosts than in normal spiral galaxies, but the difference is not significant (~ 0.4\sigma) to be considered.

<p>This thesis is a detailed observational study of the accretion processes in T Tauri stars (TTS). The interaction between the central star, the circumstellar disk and the magnetic field gives rise to a wide range of features in the spectra of TTS. The current picture of TTS is based on rather simple models assuming that accretion is a homogeneous and axisymmetric process. Although these models have been successful in explaining some observational signatures of TTS such as the shape of emission lines, the static nature of these models makes them unsuitable for describing the strong variability of the veiling spectrum and emission lines of TTS. An improved understanding of this variability is of key importance to study the dynamic processes related to the accretion flow and the winds.</p><p>This study is based on a set of high-quality spectroscopic observations with the UVES spectrograph at the 8-m VLT in 2000 and 2002. These spectra, with exposure times as short as 10-15 minutes, have high spectral resolution and high signal-to-noise ratios and cover a large part of the optical wavelength range. From this dataset we determine the basic physical parameters of several TTS and model their photospheres. These models then serve as a basis for a detailed investigation of variations of the veiling continuum and line emission. We confirm that the level of veiling correlates with some of the strongest emission lines and that coherent changes in accretion occur on a timescale of a few hours, comparable to the free-fall time from the disk to the star. From the properties of the emission lines formed close to the central star and in the stellar wind we derive restrictions on the geometry of the observed systems.</p><p>Because the intrinsic axial symmetry of a single star makes it almost impossible to disentangle rotational modulation from inhomogeneity and axial asymmetry of the accretion flow, we study a series of spectra of a close spectroscopic binary at different orbital phases and derive the 3D structure of flows between the disk and the star. Finally, we calculate the profiles of hydrogen emission lines by iteratively solving 3D NLTE radiative transfer in a state-of-the-art magnetospheric model.</p>