This thesis investigated the functional significance ofthe personality construct of action-state orientation (Kuhl, 1981), which is suggested to mediate the efficiency of the volitional approach taken to overcome the difficulties associated with goal initiation, maintenance and completion under competitive pressure. The role of volition, defined as 'the act of deciding upon a course of action and initiating it' [Syn. Will] (German Dictionary of psychology, 1934, p.283) in sport has emerged from unequivocal findings taken from coaches and athletes regarding the effectiveness of goal setting as a performance enhancement strategy (Burton, Weinberg, Yukelson & Weigand, 1998; Weinberg, Burton, Yukelson & Weigand, 2000). Further research exploration of goal setting practices concluded that the most realistic explanation for the lack of goal attainment when utilising goal setting is the lack of an adequate 'action plan' (Burton, Naylor & Holliday, 2000). Whilst goal setting is a process of motivation that ends with a decision to act (Beckmann, 2002; Heckhausen, 1991; Kuhl, 1987), the processes of goal initiation and completion are related to action plans and goal striving, which are issues of volition (Kuhl, 1984; Latharn 2000). Volitional competence is determined by the opposing personality dispositions of action- versus state-orientation. Action-orientation is characterised by an efficient present focus on action and making plans under pressure, whereas state-orientation is associated with an increased propensity to ruminate over real or imagined failure and the state the individual is in, rather than focus on the task at hand (Kuhl, 1994a). Study 1 explores the performance strategies and coping skills utilised by action- and state-oriented athletes under competitive pressure. Scores on the Athlete Coping Skills Inventory (ACSI-28; Smith, Schultz, Smoll & Ptacek, 1995)demonstrated a significantly higher usage of goal setting, relaxation and imagery as well as better emotional control and lower levels of negative thinking in the actionoriented group. Results from the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS; Thomas, Murphy & Hardy, 1999) showed comparable scores between action- and stateoriented athletes in the areas of self-talk and coachability. A similarity which highlights an increased propensity in state-oriented athletes to submit to external control and the beliefs of others in preference to their own personal judgement. Study 2 documents the impact of 5-month intervention with endurance athletes to enhance volitional functioning and self-access to their personal wants, needs and beliefs utilising Personality Systems Interaction theory (PSI; Kuhl, 2000a), which contends volition efficiency is facilitated by positive affect. Eight out of eleven baseline state-oriented athletes scores on the Volitional Components Inventory (VCI; version 6, US-I; Kuhl & Fuhrmann, 1998) showed significantly improved differences in 23 out of a total 35 areas of volitional functioning, including enhanced levels (p<O.05) of emotional control, initiating and self-determination. Significantly decreased scores (p<O.05) in areas including inhibition and fear of failure were also shown. Study 3 presents follow-up interviews with intervention programme athletes to specifically investigate personal experiences and perceptions of behaviour change. Qualitative exploration indicated more pronounced use of avoidance coping strategies related to self-awareness and the adoption of mental skills in three athletes who showed no improved volitional competency. These athletes demonstrated inappropriate and performance impairing methods of enacting their intentions. Overall, results suggest that volitional efficiency is related to the ease of access to personal beliefs, needs and wants as these self-related constructs provide goals with the dynamic properties of being self-determined and intrinsicallymotivated. Goal pursuit can be severely debilitated by intentions that lack energising and protective qualities because limited self-awareness and the use of denial create a situation where intentions are never actually associated with the constructs that govern motivational meaning and action initiation. It is necessary that athletes learn to trust their own judgements and function quickly and correctly when under competitive pressure. If athletes do not develop the ability to appropriately access the mechanisms that enable them to overcome the difficulty of goal enactment, their performance can be compromised. A key implication for professional practice is the need to develop easily adhered-to self-monitoring tools and functionally relevant affect regulation training programmes. Future research directions including the furthering of both the issues of theoretical understanding and the role played by volition in sport are presented.

This research is the first systematic investigation of solid-state orientation as a novel method for controlling drug release from biodegradable polymers. The effect of various degrees of polymer orientation was studied in oriented Poly (L-lactic acid) (PLA) films containing curcumin and theophylline as model drugs. Additionally, direction specific drug release was studied from oriented PLA rods containing paracetamol. The films oriented to 2X uniaxial constant width (UCW) or 2X2Y biaxial draw ratio showed retardation of drug release, when their nematic structure was stabilised by the presence of crystalline theophylline. Contrarily, the same films when contained solid solution of curcumin, shrunk in the release medium and exhibited a release profile similar to the un-oriented films. All films oriented to the UCW draw ratio ≥ 3X contained α crystalline form of PLA and showed acceleration of drug release proportionate to the draw ratio. According to the proposed mechanism augmented formation of water filled channels in these films was responsible for faster drug release. Similarly, the paracetamol loaded PLA rods die-drawn to uniaxial draw ratios ≥ 3X exhibited enhancement of drug release. Importantly, the amount of drug released along the oriented chain axis was significantly larger than that in the perpendicular direction. Drug release from the die-drawn rods was accelerated by a greater degree than that observed from the oriented films. This can be correlated to the differences in their size, geometry and the crystalline form of PLA. In conclusion, the current study provided substantial evidence that solid-state orientation can offer a control over drug release from PLA.

No description available.

This research is the first systematic investigation of solid-state orientation as a novel method for controlling drug release from biodegradable polymers. The effect of various degrees of polymer orientation was studied in oriented Poly (L-lactic acid) (PLA) films containing curcumin and theophylline as model drugs. Additionally, direction specific drug release was studied from oriented PLA rods containing paracetamol. The films oriented to 2X uniaxial constant width (UCW) or 2X2Y biaxial draw ratio showed retardation of drug release, when their nematic structure was stabilised by the presence of crystalline theophylline. Contrarily, the same films when contained solid solution of curcumin, shrunk in the release medium and exhibited a release profile similar to the un-oriented films. All films oriented to the UCW draw ratio ≥ 3X contained α crystalline form of PLA and showed acceleration of drug release proportionate to the draw ratio. According to the proposed mechanism augmented formation of water filled channels in these films was responsible for faster drug release. Similarly, the paracetamol loaded PLA rods die-drawn to uniaxial draw ratios ≥ 3X exhibited enhancement of drug release. Importantly, the amount of drug released along the oriented chain axis was significantly larger than that in the perpendicular direction. Drug release from the die-drawn rods was accelerated by a greater degree than that observed from the oriented films. This can be correlated to the differences in their size, geometry and the crystalline form of PLA. In conclusion, the current study provided substantial evidence that solid-state orientation can offer a control over drug release from PLA.

Die vorliegende Arbeit verknüpft die Theorie der Interaktion psychischer Systeme von Kuhl (2000, 2001) mit dem Modell beruflicher Arbeitsleistung von Tett und Burnett (2003). Unter Anwendung reizorientierter arbeitspsychologischer Stressmodelle werden Hypothesen über einen durch das subjektive Bedrohungs- und Belastungspotenzial der Arbeitssituation moderierten Zusammenhang zwischen dem berufsbezogenen und nach Maßgabe der Item Response Theorie skalierbaren Persönlichkeitsmerkmal Handlungs- vs. Lageorientierung und beruflicher Arbeitsleistung aufgestellt. In drei Befragungen an N = 415, N = 331 sowie N = 49 Berufstätigen wurden querschnittliche Daten zur Hypothesenprüfung erhoben. Berufsbezogene Handlungs- vs. Lageorientierung zeigt sich als valides Subkonstrukt der allgemeinen Handlungs- vs. Lageorientierung, welches gemäß Graded Response Modell von Samejima (1969, 1997) mit 14 Items skalierbar ist. Prospektive berufsbezogene Handlungs- vs. Lageorientierung erklärt in multiplen hierarchischen Regressionsanalysen, im Gegensatz zu allgemeiner Handlungs- vs. Lageorientierung, inkrementell zu Gewissenhaftigkeit, Extraversion und Neurotizismus Anteile kontextueller und aufgabenbezogener Arbeitsleistung. Hypothesenkonträr werden diese Zusammenhänge nur marginal vom subjektiven Belastungspotential der Arbeitssituation moderiert. Die Prädiktorfunktion prospektiver berufsbezogener Handlungs- vs. Lageorientierung für berufliche Arbeitsleistung bleibt auch unter pfadanalytischer Kontrolle eines vorhandenen Common Method Bias erhalten. Die dispositionelle Fähigkeit, durch berufliche Hindernisse gehemmten positiven Affekt vorbewusst gegenregulieren zu können, scheint demnach ein bedeutender Prädiktor beruflicher Arbeitsleistung zu sein, insbesondere bei Führungskräften. Für die berufliche Eignungsbeurteilung ist es damit von diagnostischem Mehrwert, Handlungs- vs. Lageorientierung kontextualisiert zu erheben. Der Einsatz probabilistisch- testtheoretisch konstruierter Skalen steigert dabei die Effizienz des Beurteilungsprozesses. / The current paper combines personality systems interaction theory (Kuhl, 2000, 2001) with the model of job performance by Tett and Burnett (2003). Using established stress models from work psychology it is hypothesized that there is a relation between occupational action state orientation, scalable by means of items response theory, and job performance, which is moderated by the subjective stress level of job characteristics. Three surveys among samples of N = 415, N = 331, and N = 49 professionals yielded cross sectional data for investigating the hypotheses. Occupational action state orientation proves a valid construct which is compatible with Samejima’s (1969, 1997) Graded Response Model using a 14-item scale. As a result of multiple hierarchical regression analyses, the hesitation dimension of specifically occupational, in contrast to general action state orientation is a predictor of both contextual and task performance, incremental to conscientiousness, extraversion, and neuroticism. Contrary to expectations this relation is only marginally moderated by stress-relevant job characteristics. Even when controlling for an occurring common method bias by means of path analysis the occupational hesitation dimension’s predictor role perseveres. Therefore, the dispositional ability in subconsciously regulating inhibited positive affect due to occupational obstacles, seems to be a crucial predictor of job performance, especially regarding leaders. Hence, professional aptitude assessment benefits from assessing action state orientation in a contextualized manner. Application of item response theory-based scales further enhances assessment process efficiency.

Die vorliegende Arbeit verknüpft die Theorie der Interaktion psychischer Systeme von Kuhl (2000, 2001) mit dem Modell beruflicher Arbeitsleistung von Tett und Burnett (2003). Unter Anwendung reizorientierter arbeitspsychologischer Stressmodelle werden Hypothesen über einen durch das subjektive Bedrohungs- und Belastungspotenzial der Arbeitssituation moderierten Zusammenhang zwischen dem berufsbezogenen und nach Maßgabe der Item Response Theorie skalierbaren Persönlichkeitsmerkmal Handlungs- vs. Lageorientierung und beruflicher Arbeitsleistung aufgestellt. In drei Befragungen an N = 415, N = 331 sowie N = 49 Berufstätigen wurden querschnittliche Daten zur Hypothesenprüfung erhoben. Berufsbezogene Handlungs- vs. Lageorientierung zeigt sich als valides Subkonstrukt der allgemeinen Handlungs- vs. Lageorientierung, welches gemäß Graded Response Modell von Samejima (1969, 1997) mit 14 Items skalierbar ist. Prospektive berufsbezogene Handlungs- vs. Lageorientierung erklärt in multiplen hierarchischen Regressionsanalysen, im Gegensatz zu allgemeiner Handlungs- vs. Lageorientierung, inkrementell zu Gewissenhaftigkeit, Extraversion und Neurotizismus Anteile kontextueller und aufgabenbezogener Arbeitsleistung. Hypothesenkonträr werden diese Zusammenhänge nur marginal vom subjektiven Belastungspotential der Arbeitssituation moderiert. Die Prädiktorfunktion prospektiver berufsbezogener Handlungs- vs. Lageorientierung für berufliche Arbeitsleistung bleibt auch unter pfadanalytischer Kontrolle eines vorhandenen Common Method Bias erhalten. Die dispositionelle Fähigkeit, durch berufliche Hindernisse gehemmten positiven Affekt vorbewusst gegenregulieren zu können, scheint demnach ein bedeutender Prädiktor beruflicher Arbeitsleistung zu sein, insbesondere bei Führungskräften. Für die berufliche Eignungsbeurteilung ist es damit von diagnostischem Mehrwert, Handlungs- vs. Lageorientierung kontextualisiert zu erheben. Der Einsatz probabilistisch- testtheoretisch konstruierter Skalen steigert dabei die Effizienz des Beurteilungsprozesses. / The current paper combines personality systems interaction theory (Kuhl, 2000, 2001) with the model of job performance by Tett and Burnett (2003). Using established stress models from work psychology it is hypothesized that there is a relation between occupational action state orientation, scalable by means of items response theory, and job performance, which is moderated by the subjective stress level of job characteristics. Three surveys among samples of N = 415, N = 331, and N = 49 professionals yielded cross sectional data for investigating the hypotheses. Occupational action state orientation proves a valid construct which is compatible with Samejima’s (1969, 1997) Graded Response Model using a 14-item scale. As a result of multiple hierarchical regression analyses, the hesitation dimension of specifically occupational, in contrast to general action state orientation is a predictor of both contextual and task performance, incremental to conscientiousness, extraversion, and neuroticism. Contrary to expectations this relation is only marginally moderated by stress-relevant job characteristics. Even when controlling for an occurring common method bias by means of path analysis the occupational hesitation dimension’s predictor role perseveres. Therefore, the dispositional ability in subconsciously regulating inhibited positive affect due to occupational obstacles, seems to be a crucial predictor of job performance, especially regarding leaders. Hence, professional aptitude assessment benefits from assessing action state orientation in a contextualized manner. Application of item response theory-based scales further enhances assessment process efficiency.

Duale Prozessmodelle unterscheiden implizite und explizite Formen der Informations-verarbeitung (Strack & Deutsch, 2004). Implizite Verarbeitung erfolgt schnell und un-bewusst und basiert auf affektiv-assoziativen Netzwerken. Explizite Verarbeitung geschieht überlegt und langsam und beinhaltet bewusste, kognitive Entscheidungsprozesse. In dualen Prozessmodellen der Motivation sagen implizite Motive langfristiges Verhalten und explizite Motive bewusste Entscheidungen vorher (McClelland, et al., 1989). Hoher positiver Affekt sowie geringer negativer Affekt aktivieren implizite kognitive Systeme während eine entgegen gesetzte Ausprägung explizite Informationsverarbeitung bahnt (J. Kuhl, 2000a). Drei Feldstudien untersuchen die diskriminante Validität impliziter vs. expliziter motivationaler Prozesse für das Verhalten in unbewussten vs. bewussten kritischen Situatio-nen im Hochleistungssport. In Studie 1 und 2 wird bei Tennis- (N = 60) und Basketballspielern (N = 56) die Fähigkeit erhoben, positiven und negativen Affekt zu regulieren (ACS-90; J. Kuhl, 1994). In Studie 3 (N = 86) werden zusätzlich implizite (OMT; J. Kuhl & Scheffer, 1999) und explizite Motive (PRF; D. N. Jackson, 1999) sowie die Fähigkeit zur bewussten Selbstregulation (VCQ; J. Kuhl & Fuhrmann, 1998) gemessen. In Studie 1 sagen explizite Formen der Verarbeitung (niedrige positive Affektregulation) die Tennisleistung in objektiv kritischen (wie Tie Breaks) aber nicht in bewusst kritischen Situationen vorher. In Studie 2 führt implizite Verarbeitung (hohe negative Af-fektregulation) zu besseren Basketballleistungen in objektiv kritischen Spielen. In Studie 3 unterstützt explizite Verarbeitung Leistungen in bewusst kritischen Situationen im Rückschlagsport. In unbewusst kritischen Situationen erzielen dagegen Sportler mit ausgeprägten impliziten Motiven bessere Ergebnisse. Die Befunde werden hinsichtlich der Sportartenspezifik, dem Grad der Bewusstheit sowie Persönlichkeitsunterschiede diskutiert. / Dual-process models distinguish implicit and explicit ways of information processing (Strack & Deutsch, 2004). Implicit processes are based on associative affective networks and operate fast and unconsciously. Explicit processing is a cognitive, usually slow, deliberate, and conscious way of decision-making. Dual-process models of motivation propose that implicit motives predict long-term behavior and explicit motives predict deliberate decisions (McClelland, Koestner, & Weinberger, 1989). Up-regulation of positive affect and down-regulation of negative affect activate implicit cognitive systems while regulation in the opposite direction triggers explicit information processing (J. Kuhl, 2000a). Within three field studies it is investigated whether implicit vs. explicit motivational processes are of discriminant validity for professional athletic behavior in unconsciously vs. consciously critical situations. In study one and two, tennis (N = 60) and basketball professionals’ (N = 56) abilities to regulate positive and negative affect (ACS-90; J. Kuhl, 1994) are assessed. In study three (N = 86) the additional measures of implicit (OMT; J. Kuhl & Scheffer, 1999) and explicit motives (PRF; D. N. Jackson, 1999) as well as conscious self-regulation (VCQ; J. Kuhl & Fuhrmann, 1998) are used. Study one proposes that explicit processing supports performance in objective critical situations (tie breaks) in tennis. However, in consciously critical situations no advantage for explicitly processing athletes could be found. In study two implicitly processing basketball players perform better in objectively critical games. In the final study racquet sportsmen who process explicitly perform better in consciously critical situations. In contrast, in unconsciously critical situations athletes with high implicit motives gain better results. Findings are discussed from the perspective of task specificity, degree of awareness, and individual differences.

Though a major illness in modern society, depression is still not completely understood. A number of empirical observations point to the importance of basic cognitive processes as well as personality variables as antecedents of a depressive disorder. In this work it is argued that “state orientation”, a personality style characterized by the inability to actively influence one’s focus of thought, plays an important role in the development of at least some forms of major depressive disorder. In the present work, it is suggested that (1) state-oriented cognitions are equivalent to sustained information processing, that (2) depressed individuals are characterized in particular by state-oriented cognitions related to prior failure experiences, that (3) sustained processing of affective information will interfere with normal executive cognitive functioning in depressed individuals resulting in impairments of normal behavior, and that (4) both sustained information processing and “affective interference” will be associated with specific dysfunctional patterns of brain activity in depressed individuals. In the first chapter of this thesis, theorizing pertaining to “action control” and the relationship between action control and state orientation are reviewed. After having established the potential functional significance of state-oriented cognitions, their possible link to depression is developed by introducing the “degenerated-intention hypothesis”. Afterwards, the role of state orientation in the advent of the depressive state is discussed against the background of the “functional helplessness” model of depression. Next, recent empirical findings related to executive dysfunction associated with state-oriented cognitions in major depressive disorder and related dysfunctional patterns of brain activity are reviewed. By considering evidence from studies on executive functioning, brain imaging, and neurophysiological studies, support is found for a possible frontocingulate dysfunction associated with a state-oriented cognitive style underlying a major depressive disorder. Consistent with the proposed link between depression and state orientation, in the second chapter of the thesis, Studies 1a – 1c demonstrate that subclinically and clinically depressed individuals are specifically characterized by failure-related state orientation. Moreover, the results of Study 2, described in Chapter 3, reveal that sustained processing of affectively valenced information may indeed interfere with subsequent executive cognitive functioning, especially in individuals demonstrating relatively high levels of depression. Finally, in line with the idea that sustained information processing and affective interference will be related to an individual’s level of state orientation and will be reflected in specific patterns of neural activity, Study 3, presented in Chapter 4, provides considerable evidence for disturbed brain function in clinically depressed individuals during processing of affective information as well as subsequent executive cognitive functioning and its relation to state-oriented thought. The current research supports the idea that state orientation, in particular its failure-focused form, is a crucial process involved in the development and maintenance of a depressive disorder. Specifically, the present findings suggest that certain forms of major depressive disorder are associated with sustained processing of affective information and with the resulting affective interference with executive cognitive functioning. Findings further suggest that sustained information processing is experienced by affected individuals as ruminative, state-oriented thought on past aversive experiences, and that both sustained information processing and affective interference are associated with distinct patterns of brain activity, which are related to early stimulus evaluation, conflict monitoring, and conflict resolution. The processes possibly underlying some forms of depression, as proposed in this thesis, comprise what may be called “the spinning mind”, whose important functional significance is to hinder an individual from adaptive behavior by impairing the ability to direct thought. Although state orientation may therefore appear to be maladaptive per se, it may be argued instead that this mode of action control is also an adaptive process as long as critical limits of certain parameters are met and the spinning mind is prevented. These and similar considerations are addressed in the concluding discussion in Chapter 5.