Many municipalities have established stormwater user fees (SUFs), commonly known as stormwater utilities, to raise revenue for stormwater management programs, however little is known about the trends among the fees currently in existence. This research observes trends in the establishment, type and magnitude of user fees by analyzing location, population density, home value, and establishment for a comprehensive national stormwater user fee database with data for 1,490 user fees. The Equivalent Residential Unit (ERU), a SUF that charges based on impervious area, was the most prevalent fee type in all NOAA Climate regions of the U.S. except the West and West North Central. The Tier system, a SUF that charges differently for properties by defined categories, was the second most prevalent in all regions except the East North Central and West North Central. The ERU was found in larger cities with high population densities whereas flat fees, SUFs that charge a single rate for all properties, were found in smaller towns. Higher home values led to higher monthly fees for 28% of the municipalities analyzed. The Residential Equivalence Factor (REF), a SUF that charges based on runoff produced, was popular in municipalities with higher home values and the flat fee was popular in those with lower home values. The number of SUFs established increased near Phase I MS4 permit and Phase II small MS4 permit deadlines. / Master of Science

There is a strong interest in rainwater harvesting (RWH) solutions as the global demand for water increases and water sources face contamination and depletion. Despite the extensive research conducted on the impact of RWH on watersheds, there is significant research to be completed to determine the relationship between the collection tank volume, roof size, and water demand satisfied by the RWH system. This thesis aims to further the understanding of the behaviour of RWH systems through a quantitative assessment of the water provided by these systems. Calculating the reliability of RWH systems in various Canadian regions allows for an evaluation of the capacity of RWH in meeting various residential water needs in Canada’s diverse climates. The results are obtained through hourly continuous simulation to provide the most accurate results and are presented in a user-friendly format through simple equations and graphs. RWH modeling through analytical equations do not require long-term historical data and are easier to use than conducting computer-aided continuous simulations. A better understating of the analytical equations’ application is developed through a comparison between the analytical and continuous simulations methods. The comparison is held for different regions within Canada, and the analysis confirms a lack of accuracy for the analytical method in some climatic conditions. Daily continuous simulations conduced for Ugandan and Canadian regions provide a perspective on the feasibility of RWH systems to meet the human right to drinking water in the two countries. A comparison of the reliability of RWH tanks in Ugandan and Canadian regions is conducted to provide insight into the impact of rainfall patterns on the reliability of RWH systems. The evaluation of RWH performance in the RRM context in Canada and Uganda is aimed to address the lack of adequate water sources in rural, remote, and otherwise marginalized (RRM) communities globally. Examining the most accurate and appropriate modeling tools and assessing the actual yield of RWH systems provides information critical to water-sensitive communities and provides a foundation for future research to further explore the most effective application of RWH in urban and water-sensitive communities. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

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Submitted by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2015-10-28T12:52:56Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Tese - Patrícia Layne Alves - 2015.pdf: 6139087 bytes, checksum: 2d26cabd2939ffa1c0a67132b80a0490 (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2015-10-28T12:54:31Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 Tese - Patrícia Layne Alves - 2015.pdf: 6139087 bytes, checksum: 2d26cabd2939ffa1c0a67132b80a0490 (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-10-28T12:54:31Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Tese - Patrícia Layne Alves - 2015.pdf: 6139087 bytes, checksum: 2d26cabd2939ffa1c0a67132b80a0490 (MD5) license_rdf: 23148 bytes, checksum: 9da0b6dfac957114c6a7714714b86306 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-04-16 / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Goiás - FAPEG / Problems related to water, in the urban environment, have drawn attention in the face of the problem caused by its lack and/or excess. Among this backdrop there is the tumultuous occupation of urban space that combined with the suppression of soil coverage and vegetation leads to the urban runoff higher volume, pollution and shorter time to peak discharge. In this context, the benefits of urban afforestation are present, which besides the aesthetic value added to space, set up physical barriers to stormwater, favoring its retention, storage and infiltration into the soil. This study aims to evaluate the capacity of rainfall interception treetops the some species, reduce the volume of urban runoff, slow the flow peaks, as well as to expand the attention span of an urban watershed. The research was field experiments with recurrent arboreal species in the urban afforestation of Uruaçu, Goiás, using pluviographs, trunk collectors and water level sensor. From the use of interception parameters determined in this study, computer simulations using the Storm Water Management Model Model (SWMM) were performed, starting from the proposition of scenarios with different types of territorial installment associated with the Low Impact Development practices (LID) and urban forestry. During the data collection period 2012/2013, the rainfall events had a median of accumulated rainfall of 16.7mm. During this period, the median values of interception were Mangifera indica - 8.0mm; Pachira aquatica - 7.4mm; Licania tomentosa - 7.2mm; and Caesalpinia peltophoroides - 4.8mm. The period of data collection relating to 2013/2014, the median precipitation of rainfall events were 20.7mm, and the median values for interception and stemflow were respectively: 5.7mm and 0.1mm for Mangifera indica; 4.5mm and 0.2mm for Licania tomentosa; and 3.8mm and 0.3mm for Tabebuia ochracea. The delay at the start of average rains caused by tree species was 3min. The presence of individual trees afforded a median delay in the peak time of 3 min, a reduction of the peak flow of 0.8 mm/min and runoff of 4.7mm/min. Through simulations with the scenario where the wooded urban planning aggregated all LID techniques employed in this study, it was possible to achieve a reduction in peak flows in 3.42m³ / s, compared to conventional design; allowing storage of a volume of water in 4470.59m³ local infiltration proposed structures; and delay the peak flows of up to 6 min. This thesis confirms the interference of the individual characteristics of the species in the rain interception capability by their canopies and reducing runoff, highlighting the need for careful definition of the species that make up the urban forestry; testifies the existence of variations in interceptions in relation to rainfall events and during their occurrence; as well as quantitative data points precipitate volume reduction and drained by the tree individual presence in urban areas. Their research shows that, alone, afforestation and LID techniques cause little reduction in volume and flow and little delay in time to peak flow, while combined contribute significantly to drainage. This study differs from the use of recording rain gauges and linígrados for the measurement of precipitation and runoff directly under the canopy of individual trees in an urban environment; and adds to SWMM the insertion of arboreal benefits in hydrological simulation. / Os transtornos relacionados à água, no ambiente urbano, têm merecido destaque diante da problemática causada pela sua falta e/ou excesso. Dentre este cenário, tem-se a ocupação desordenada do espaço urbano, que aliada à supressão da cobertura natural do solo e da vegetação acarretam ao escoamento urbano maior volume, poluição e menor tempo ao pico de vazão. Neste contexto, insere-se os benefícios da arborização urbana, que além do valor estético que agrega ao espaço, oferece barreiras físicas às águas pluviais, favorecendo a sua retenção, armazenamento e infiltração no solo. Este estudo se propõe a avaliar a capacidade de algumas espécies arbóreas em interceptar as águas de chuva pelas suas copas, reduzir o volume de escoamento superficial urbano, retardar os picos de vazão, bem como de ampliar o tempo de concentração de uma bacia hidrográfica urbana. A pesquisa teve experimentos de campo com espécies arbóreas recorrentes à arborização urbana de Uruaçu, Goiás, utilizando pluviógrafos, coletores de tronco e linígrafos. A partir do emprego dos parâmetros de interceptação determinados neste estudo, foram realizadas simulações computacionais com o uso do modelo Storm Water Management Model (SWMM), partindo da proposição de cenários com diferentes tipologias de parcelamento territorial associados às práticas de Low Impact Development (LID) e à arborização urbana. Durante o período de coleta de dados de 2012/2013, os eventos chuvosos tiveram mediana de 16.7mm de precipitação acumulada. Neste período, os valores medianos de interceptação foram: Mangifera indica – 8.0mm; Pachira aquatica - 7.4mm; Licania tomentosa – 7.2mm; e, Caesalpinia peltophoroides - 4.8mm. No período de coleta dados referente a 2013/2014, as precipitações medianas dos eventos chuvosos foram de 20.7mm, e os valores medianos para interceptação e escoamento pelo tronco, foram respectivamente: 5.7mm e 0.1mm para a Mangifera indica; 4.5mm e 0.2mm para a Licania tomentosa; e, 3.8mm e 0.3mm para a Tabebuia ochracea. O retardo mediano no início das chuvas ocasionado pelas espécies arbóreas foi de 3min. A presença dos indivíduos arbóreos propiciou, um atraso mediano no tempo ao pico de 3 minutos, uma redução do pico de vazão de 0.8 mm/min e do escoamento superficial de 4.7mm/min. Através de simulações, com o cenário em que o planejamento urbano arborizado agregava todas as técnicas de LID neste estudo empregadas, conseguiu-se atingir a redução das vazões de pico em 3.42m³/s, em relação ao projeto convencional; permitindo o armazenamento de um volume de água de 4470.59m³ nas estruturas de infiltração locais propostas; e, retardar os picos de vazão em até 6 min. Esta tese, confirma a interferência das características individuais das espécies na capacidade de interceptação de chuva por suas copas e na redução do escoamento superficial, ressaltando a necessidade de definição criteriosa das espécies que comporão a arborização urbana; atesta a existência de variações nas interceptações em relação aos eventos chuvosos e durante suas ocorrências; bem como, aponta dados quantitativos de redução de volume precipitado e escoado pela presença do indivíduo arbóreo no meio urbano. A pesquisa comprovou que, isoladamente, a arborização e as técnicas de LID causam pouca redução no volume e vazão e, pouco retardo no tempo ao pico do escoamento, enquanto que somadas contribuem de forma significativa à drenagem. O presente estudo se difere pela utilização de pluviógrafos e linígrados para a aferição de precipitações e escoamento superficial diretamente sob as copas de indivíduos arbóreos em ambiente urbano; e, agrega ao SWMM a inserção dos benefícios arbóreos na simulação hidrológica.

Aogu Farm was built on reclaimed land. Because of its rich ecological resources, Aogu was defined as a "Major Wildlife Habitat" in Chiayi County by the Forest Service and is also expected to reduce carbon in the plan for the flatland forest. Power pumps are currently used to irrigate and cultivate the area. However, after becoming the Forest Recreation Area in the future, Aogu Farm has to reduce the influence of human beings. However, if the Taisugar Company doesn¡¦t support the plan of Forest Service or abandons farming and stops the pumping power, the Aogu Wetlands will suffer the crisis of coastal inundation. Hydrological models have their own characteristics. For example, inundation models for regional drainage using one-dimensional channel flow, two-dimensional overland flow, and runoff in the mountains all can be assessed to solve the inundation problems in the coastal lowlands. Nevertheless, the Aogu Wetlands, the Case Study area, has both a dry season and a wet season even in the lowland. When rainstorms occur, the area is unable to discharge the water by gravity but can depend only on pumps to discharge the water into the sea. Therefore, based on the need to manage water, hydrological surveys must be conducted to assess the hydrological impact of continuous rainfall on the Aogu Wetlands and to provide reference information to assist in the management. In the thesis, I use both the Geographic Information System (GIS) and the Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) as analysis tools. Moreover, the different regions are further divided into watershed and the route of drainage, establishing two kinds of models of watershed hydrology for precipitation simulations. Finally, to compare these two methods, the Arc Hydro and SWMM models are used in watershed analysis.

Land development transforms the natural landscape and impacts in stream ecosystems and downstream communities as it alters the natural flow regime. An increase in impervious areas results in higher volumes of storm water runoff, reduced time to peak, and more frequent flooding. Best Management Practices (BMP) and Low Impact development (LID) are a few of the set of measures which are used to mitigate the impact of urbanization. Peak flow, runoff volume are few of the conventional metrics which are used to evaluate the impact and performance of these storm water management strategies on the watershed. BMP are majorly used to control the flood runoff but results in the release of large volumes of runoff even after the flood wave passed the reach and LIDs are used to replicate the natural flow regime by controlling the runoff at the source. Therefore need to incorporate a metric which includes the timing and area being inundated needs to be considered to study the impact of these strategies on the downstream. My proposed research will focus on simulating the Low Impact Development (LID) techniques like permeable pavements and rainwater harvesting on an urbanized watershed using a curve number approach to quantify the hydrologic performance of these strategies on the watershed. LID, BMPs, and combined strategies are introduced for retrofitting existing conditions and their hydrologic performance is accessed based on the peak flow and a new metric Hydrologic Footprint Residence. A simulation optimization framework would be developed which identifies cost effective LID options that maximize the reduction of peak flow from the existing condition design storms while meeting budget restrictions. Further LID and BMP placement is included in the optimization model to study the impact of the combined scenario on the storm water management plans and their performance based on different storms and corresponding budget. Therefore a tradeoff can be illustrated between the implementation cost and the hydrological impact on the watershed based on the storm water management approach of using only LID and combination of LID and BMP corresponding to varied spectrum of design storm events.

Drainage area is a measure of the number of acres feeding into a creek. Drainage area threshold is the amount of acreage required for the creek to be included on a map. Watersheds mapped according to higher drainage area thresholds will show creek systems that are shorter and concentrated at the bottom of the watershed. Watersheds mapped according to lower drainage area thresholds show creek systems that are longer and extend further up the watershed. Since all watersheds are subject to different land uses, soil types, geology, etc., they should be mapped according to different drainage area thresholds. Headwaters are where creeks begin. There is empirical evidence that properly functioning headwaters significantly reduce erosion, improve water quality, slow stormwater flows, and provide habitat. If municipalities use lower drainage area thresholds to define their creeks, they can include more headwaters in their creek setback requirements. This professional report identifies the Harris Branch watershed as being under relatively more pressure to develop and exhibiting more environmental risk than other watersheds in Austin, Texas’ Desired Development Zone. Creeks in the watershed are redrawn according to reduced drainage area thresholds using a simple ArcGIS analysis. The analysis reveals a critical mass where creek setbacks appear to be too extensive. If creeks with a drainage area of 5 acres are protected by development code, the setbacks created have excessive branching that could be too restrictive for development. A critical mass ratio should be considered when determining which drainage area threshold is most appropriate for a watershed. The critical mass ratio is equal to the number of branches allowed per a specified distance of creek centerline. The process of identifying this critical mass ratio can help growing cities find a balance between the need to encourage development in designated areas and the need to protect natural creek systems everywhere. I recommend that municipalities review the effects of reducing drainage area threshold for each watershed, and then identify the drainage area threshold that, when protected by setback requirements, allows for extended and connected greenways as well as an increase in density. / text

In recent times urban flooding has become more frequent and more complex due to the effects of increasing urban areas and climate change. In some established urban areas the existing drainage infrastructure is unable to cope with the volume of surface runoff and flooding events are more frequent, therefore new approaches to create more space for water within developments are required. This research was conceived in that context. It aims to investigate the potential for integrating green space planning with water planning and to develop a framework for the same in order to reduce the risk of flooding. An extensive literature review was carried out in the areas of urban planning, water planning, planning legislations, and issues related to integrating green space and water planning. The review identified the need for an inclusive framework which could integrate aspects of green space and storm water planning more holistically to achieve greater spatial planning efficiency. To satisfy this need, a conceptual framework was developed which took into consideration the opinions of various stakeholders. The conceptual framework included green spaced planning for SUDS, recreational and storm water indicators and a mechanism for integrated evaluation of SUDS for recreation and storm water management. The conceptual framework provided a joint approach where both engineers and planners will need to work together for the development of integrated storm water and green space plans. The framework showed processes for both disciplines and also indicates how spatial planning and water planning interfaced so that there was clarity of roles. In order to evaluate integrated plans, an ‘integrated evaluation tool’ was developed which uses indicators from both the areas of green space planning and water planning. The evaluation tool also contained a scoring system which can be used to select storm water management options with more recreational potential. The tool provides a mechanism to balance the requirements of recreation and storm water management so that more holistic solutions can be developed by teams of engineers and planners. The conceptual framework and the integrated evaluation tool were applied to two case study catchments. Results from the case studies showed the relationship of spatial planning and flooding. It further tested whether recreational aspects could be integrated into storm water planning. A number of drainage options were tested to show the application of the evaluation tool under various scenarios. This results of the research showed that the conceptual framework was appropriate in both case study areas even though the areas had different patterns of development. It is therefore proposed that the approach has potential for wider application in other geographical areas. Results from the two areas also showed that the integrated approach established in this research could enhance the recreational aspects associated with urban storm water management. The framework presented in this thesis will potentially be of use to a wide range of stakeholders such policy makers, local authorities, water companies, consultants and researchers. It could also be useful in informing the evolution of planning policies and technical guidance associated with water and green space planning.

The environmental issues of storm water in the urban environment is addressed in political policies on many different governance levels. The concept of “sustainable storm water” in Europe uses the natural water cycle as a template for urban drainage, and the EU has a water framework directive (WFD) with a systems approach, using drainage basins as the starting point of all actions. In Stockholm, a new storm water strategy was adopted in 2015 with a sustainability approach, using much of the terminology from the WFD and the Swedish Water & Wastewater Association. To find new aspects related to sustainable development of storm water management in Stockholm, this study used a resilience framework of seven principles to analyse the implementation of the Stockholm storm water strategy (SSWS). A mixed method approach was used for a qualitative study, using interviews and a review of policy documentation as the main data sources, complemented by a desk study of literature on the subject of storm water management, as well as participation in some relevant workshops. To broaden the study, examples from a developing area within the Stockholm municipality, Stora Sköndal, was used, as well as another municipality in the Baltic Sea region; Helsinki (Finland). The SSWS leans on the legislation of the environmental quality standards (EQS) but is lacking in authority coordination on a national and municipal level in Stockholm. Diversity in problem formulations and solutions for infrastructure is high, so is the diversity of involved stakeholders, which is an indication of resilience. This in combination with the structure and communicational links having questionable functionality, leads to a complex and inefficient structure in management of storm water, which undermines the resilience of the system. However, since the SSWS and other connected policies (such as local programmes of measures and sustainability requirements) are new, the system is undergoing change, which shows some level of adaptability and complex adaptive systems (CAS) thinking, another resilience indicator. The implementation of the WFD on a municipal level is also connected to CAS thinking, as well as a polycentric governance system -one of the seven resilience principles of the framework used. Some of the main issues found within this study for building resilience in the SES are related to follow-up and responsibility division. / Miljöfrågor inom dagvatten hanteras i policyarbete på flera olika institutionella nivåer. Begreppet ”hållbart dagvatten” utgår i Europa från den naturliga vattencykeln och EU:s vattendirektiv (WFD) har en systeminriktning som utgår från avrinningsområden istället för andra geografiska gränsdragningar. Stockholms Stad antog en ny dagvattenstrategi 2015 med en hållbarhetsinriktning, som innehåller mycket terminologi från WFD och publikationer från branchorganisationen Svenskt Vatten AB. För att hitta nya aspekter för en hållbar utveckling av dagvattenhantering i Stockholm använder denna studie ett teoretiskt ramverk inom resiliens,, som bygger på sju principer, i en analys av stadens dagvattensstrategi (SSWS). Blandade metoder användes för att genomföra en kvalitativ studie, där policydokument granskades tillsammans med intervjuer av nyckelpersoner, vilket kompletterades med en skrivbordsstudie av litteratur om dagvattenhantering samt deltagande i relevanta workshops. För att bredda studien användes exempel från ett planprogramsområde inom Stockholms kommun, Stora Sköndal, liksom en annan kommun i Östersjöområdet; Helsingfors (Finland). SSWS bygger juridiskt på miljökvalitetsnormerna, men brister i myndighetssamordning på nationell och kommunal nivå i Stockholm. Problemformuleringar och infrastrukturlösningar har hög mångfald, precis som involverade aktörer, vilket är en indikation på att systemet bygger upp resiliens. Detta i kombination med att struktur och kommunikationslänkar är något bristfälliga leder till en komplex och ineffektiv dagvattenhantering, vilket underminerar resiliensen i systemet. Eftersom SSWS och andra relaterade styrdokument (t.ex. lokala åtgärdsprogram och hållbarhetskrav) är nya, genomgår systemet förändringar, vilket visar på anpassningsförmåga och komplext, adaptivt systemtänk (CAS), vilket är en ytterligare resiliensindikator. Implementeringen av WFD på kommunal nivå är också kopplad till CAS-tänkande, liksom ett polycentriskt styrsystem - en av de sju principerna för resiliens i det teoretiska ramverket som används. Några av de huvudsakliga problem för att bygga resiliens som hittades i denna studie är relaterade till uppföljning och ansvarsfördelning.

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