Orientador: Auteliano Antunes dos Santos Junior / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Mecanica / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-10T07:08:41Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Santos_RoseleneAparecidados_M.pdf: 4465018 bytes, checksum: fd6b1a57a8eaea1d49a894d14dcac92f (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007 / Resumo: O processo de medição de tensões mecânicas por ultra-som faz uso da teoria acustoelástica, que relaciona a variação na velocidade de propagação de ondas com as deformações no objeto sob análise. Ondas ultra-sônicas propagando-se em meios elásticos são fortemente influenciadas pelas condições ambientais. Além disso, os sistemas instrumentais ultra-sônicos também podem ser influenciados por características do método e do procedimento de medição. Esta dissertação tem como objetivo estudar o efeito da temperatura sobre o resultado do processo de medição de tensões por ultra-som para aços API 5L X70. Como tópico adicional, é apresentado o estudo dos efeitos da força de contato entre o conjunto de transdutores e a amostra sob análise e também da variação da freqüência dos transdutores. Neste trabalho foram utilizadas ondas longitudinais criticamente refratadas, que caminham paralelamente à superfície, logo abaixo desta. Os resultados mostraram que há uma influência significativa da temperatura sobre o resultado da medição e que esta influência pode ser quantificada. Embora a freqüência dos transdutores e a pressão de contato também influenciem, estas porém, podem ser controladas durante o processo de medição / Abstract: The measurement process of mechanical stresses by Ultrasonic waves uses the acousticelastic theory, which relates the variation of wave speed propagation with the deformations on the object under analysis. Ultrasonic waves propagating itself in elastic medium are widely influenced by environmental conditions. Besides, the ultrasonic instrumentation systems also can be influenced by the method and the measurement procedure. This research has the aim to study the temperature effects on the result of measurement process from stress by ultrasonic waves in API 5L X70. As additional topic, a study of the contact pressure effects is presented between transducer assembly and the sample under analysis and also the transducers frequency variation. Longitudinal critically refracted waves (LCR) were used in this survey, which travel parallel to the surface, just below it. The results showed a significant temperature influence on the measurement results and that influence can be quantified. Although the transducers frequency and the contact pressure were also influent in a measurement process, but both can be controlled. / Mestrado / Mecanica dos Sólidos e Projeto Mecanico / Mestre em Engenharia Mecânica

Orientador: Auteliano Antunes dos Santos Junior / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Mecânica / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-18T20:56:34Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 PereiraJunior_Paulo_M.pdf: 2502718 bytes, checksum: 61cbb4283644bcdc64ec5c11f45f8532 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011 / Resumo: A medição de tensão por ultrassom é baseada no princípio da acustoelasticidade que relaciona a deformação de um corpo submetido a um estado de tensão com a variação da velocidade de propagação de onda no corpo. A relação entre tensão e velocidade de onda é determinada pelo módulo de elasticidade e pela constante acustoelástica. Constantes acustoelásticas podem ser obtidas experimentalmente ou calculadas em função de constantes elásticas de segunda e terceira ordem. O objetivo deste trabalho é determinar as constantes elásticas que compõem a constante acustoelástica e avaliar a influência da anisotropia gerada por laminação no efeito acustoelástico para barras laminadas de liga de alumínio 7050 T7451. Constantes acustoelásticas e constantes elásticas de segunda e terceira ordem foram determinadas utilizando a técnica de ultrassom e considerando o material ortotrópico. Ondas longitudinais, cisalhantes e longitudinais criticamente refratadas (Lcr) foram utilizadas para as medições. O valor da constante acustoelástica obtido experimentalmente foi comparado com o valor calculado a partir das constantes elásticas medidas considerando o material isotrópico. O resultado da comparação mostrou que a diferença entre o valor da constante acustoelástica medido e calculado pode chegar a 7 %. Este resultado, além de indicar o grau de influência da anisotropia no efeito acustoelástico, pode ser utilizado como parâmetro de incerteza na medição de tensão quando é utilizada a constante acustoelástica para materiais isotrópicos, ao invés de ortotrópicos, calculada a partir de valores de constantes elásticas conhecidos / Abstract: The evaluation of stress with ultrasonic waves is based on the acoustoelastic theory, which relates the strain in a body under stress with changes in the velocity of a wave travelling through the body. The relation between stress and wave velocity is determined by elastic modulus and by the acoustoelastic constant. Acoustoelastic constants can be experimentally measured or calculated from second and third order elastic constants. The aim of this work is to find the elastic constants that compose the acoustoelastic constant and evaluate the influence of anisotropy generated by rolling in the acoustoelastic effect for rolled bars of aluminum alloy 7050 T7451. Acoustoelastic constants and second and third order elastic constants were determined using ultrasonic techniques and considering the material as orthotropic. Longitudinal, shear, and critically refracted longitudinal waves (Lcr) were utilized in the experiments. The value of the acoustoelastic constant obtained experimentally was compared to the constant calculated using the elastic constants measured and considering the material as isotropic. The result of the comparison showed that the difference between the acoustoelastic constant measured and the calculated one can reach 7 %. In addition of indicating the influence of the anisotropy in the acoustoelastic effect, this result also can be used as an uncertainty parameter in evaluating stress using the acoustoelastic constant calculated using the elastic constants and considering the material isotropic, instead of orthotropic / Mestrado / Mecanica dos Sólidos e Projeto Mecanico / Mestre em Engenharia Mecânica

Orientador: Auteliano Antunes dos Santos Junior / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Mecânica / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-21T01:45:00Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Vaz_BrunoFilipe_M.pdf: 3622447 bytes, checksum: 4729491ba809efa80fade4767a7247b1 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012 / Resumo: Bielas falham quando submetidas a esforços que ultrapassam seu limite de escoamento. Esses elementos são projetados para suportar tanto esforços em tração quanto em compressão, embora os últimos sejam mais intensos. Para a criação de novas bielas, engenheiros fazem uso de análises de elementos finitos para validar seus desenhos, mas mesmo assim os desenhos atuais dessas peças seguem os modelos desenvolvidos décadas atrás. A validação das análises computacionais dos modelos é feita através de ensaios destrutivos ou medições e análises do produto em uso regular. Engenheiros de desenvolvimento e de testes seriam muito beneficiados por uma ferramenta de ensaios não destrutivos que possibilitassem validar resultados obtidos numericamente rapidamente e a um custo menor que os ensaios tradicionais. A obtenção de campos de tensão pode ser feita através de diversos métodos, dentre os quais se destaca como o mais amplamente utilizado o uso de strain-gauges. Este trabalho avalia o uso do método de medição de tensões em bielas por interferência de padrões de spekle, também conhecido como Eletronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry (ESPI). As tensões medidas na região plana da alma da biela são comparadas com resultados de elementos finitos. Essa região corresponde à porção interior da alma, excluindo-se as regiões de borda que possuem uma espessura maior. Baseando-se nos conceitos de delineamento de experimentos - DoE (Design of Experiments), foi feito um planejamento dos experimentos com a finalidade de encontrar uma configuração de medições que elimine, ou ao menos minimize a influência de fatores incontroláveis (ruídos). Os ensaios foram realizados em uma biela forjada submetida a esforços compressivos. Concluindo o trabalho foi mostrado que os campos de tensão obtidos pela técnica ESPI estavam em acordo com os resultados obtidos pelo método de elementos finitos, ressaltando assim a utilidade e os benefícios da aplicação da técnica no desenvolvimento de novos produtos que visam um aumento da segurança em componentes de motores / Abstract: Conrods fail when submitted to stresses higher than its yield limit. They are designed to support both compressive and tractive forces, although the first is usually more intense. Engineers use Finite Element simulations to create new shapes, but the main design still follows the one developed several decades ago. The validation of the results is usually performed through destructive tests or field evaluation. Test Engineers and Designers would benefit of a non-destructive tool that would expedite the validation and cost much less than conventional tests. Several possible methods to obtain the stress field of a part might be used, among which the best known and widespread is the use of strain gauges. In this work we evaluate the application of Electronic Speckle Pattern Interferometry (ESPI) to measure stresses in conrods in substitution to the classical techniques. The measurements are performed in the flat surface of the conrod and the results compared with those from Finite Elements simulations. This region corresponds to the inner portion of the rod body, excluding only the edges of it that are slightly thicker. An experimental design was developed, based mainly on the concepts of Design of Experiments - DOE, to eliminate or at least reduce the influence of the uncontrollable factors (noise) over the results. The tests were performed with a conventional forged connecting rod submitted to compressive efforts. In conclusion, we showed that the measurements of the stress and strain fields obtained by the ESPI technique are in accordance with the simulations and that this technique is a very useful tool for design engineers, improving the safety and reducing the development cycle in engine applications / Mestrado / Mecanica dos Sólidos e Projeto Mecanico / Mestre em Engenharia Mecânica

Stress in silicon structures plays an essential role in modern semiconductor technology. This stress has to be measured and due to the ongoing miniaturization in today’s semiconductor industry, the measuring method has to meet certain requirements. The present thesis deals with the question how Raman spectroscopy can be used to measure the state of stress in semiconductor structures. In the first chapter the relation between Raman peakshift and stress in the material is explained. It is shown that detailed stress maps with a spatial resolution close to the diffraction limit can be obtained in structured semiconductor samples. Furthermore a novel procedure, the so called Stokes-AntiStokes-Difference method is introduced. With this method, topography, tool or drift effects can be distinguished from stress related influences in the sample. In the next chapter Tip-enhanced Raman Scattering (TERS) and its application for an improvement in lateral resolution is discussed. For this, a study is presented, which shows the influence of metal particles on the intensity and localization of the Raman signal. A method to attach metal particles to scannable tips is successfully applied. First TERS scans are shown and their impact on and challenges for high resolution stress measurements on semiconductor structures is explained. / Spannungen in Siliziumstrukturen spielen eine entscheidende Rolle für die moderne Halbleitertechnologie. Diese mechanischen Verspannungen müssen gemessen werden und die fortlaufende Miniaturisierung in der Halbleiterindustrie stellt besondere Anforderungen an die benutzte Messmethode. Diese Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit dem Thema, inwieweit Raman Spektroskopie zur Spannungsmessung in Halbleiterstrukturen geeignet ist. Im ersten Kapitel wird der Zusammenhang zwischen Raman Peakverschiebung und mechanischer Spannung erläutert. Es wird gezeigt wie man detaillierte stress maps in strukturierten Halbleiterproben erhält mit einer Auflösung nahe am Diffraktionslimit. Darüber hinaus wird ein neuartiges Verfahren, die sogenannte Stokes-AntiStokes-Differenz Methode vorgestellt mit deren Hilfe man Einflüsse von Topographie, Geräteeffekten und Drift von den zu messenden Spannungszuständen in der Probe unterscheiden kann. Im nächsten Kapitel wird diskutiert, inwiefern der Ansatz von Tip-enhanced Raman Scattering (TERS), also spitzenverstärkter Raman Streuung genutzt werden kann um die laterale Auflösung bei Raman Spannungsmessungen zu erhöhen. Hierzu wird eine Studie präsentiert, die zeigt, welchen Einfluss Metallpartikel auf Erhöhung und Lokalisierung des Ramansignals haben. Eine Methode um Metallpartikel an scannbare Spitzen anzubringen wird erfolgreich angewendet. Erste TERS-Scans werden gezeigt und deren Bedeutung und Herausforderungen bei der hochaufgelösten Messung von Spannungen in Halbleiterstrukturen wird erläutert.

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This research developed two innovative test methods that were used to experimentally evaluate the performance of a novel blade tip timing (BTT) system from Prime Photonics, LC. The research focused on creating known blade tip offsets and tip vibrations so that the results from a BTT system can be validated. The topic of validation is important to the BTT field as the results between many commercial systems still are not consistent. While the system that was tested is still in development and final validation is not complete, the blade tip offset and vibration frequency validation results show that this BTT system will be a valuable addition to turbomachinery research and development programs once completed. For the first test method custom rotors were created with specified blade tip offsets. For the blade tip offset alternate measurement, the rotors were optically scanned and analyzed in CAD software with a tip location uncertainty of 0.1 mm. The BTT system agreed with the scanned results to within 0.13 mm. Tests were also conducted to ensure that the BTT system identified and indexed the blades properly. The second developed test method used an instrumented piezoelectric blade to create known dynamic deflections. The active vibration rotor was able to create measureable deflection over a range of frequencies centered on the first bending mode of the blade. The results for the 110 Hz, 150 Hz, 180 Hz first bending resonance, 200 Hz, and 1036 Hz second bending resonance cases are presented. A strain gage and piezoelectric sensor were attached to the active blade during the dynamic deflection tests to provide an alternate method for determining blade vibration frequency. The BTT system correctly identified the active blade excitation frequencies as well as a 120 Hz frequency from the drive motor. This thesis also explored applying BTT methods and testing to more realistic blade geometry and vibration. Blade vibrations are usually classified by their frequency relative to the rotation speed. Synchronous vibrations are integer multiples of the rotational speed and are often excited by struts or vanes fixed to the engine case. For this reason, special probe placement algorithms were explored that use sine curve fitting to optimize the probe placement. Knowing how the blade will vibrate at operation before testing is critical as well. In preparation for future research, ANSYS Mechanical was used to predict the first three modes of a PT6A-28 first stage rotor blade at 1,966, 5,539, and 7,144 Hz. These frequencies were validated to within 4% using scanning laser vibrometry. The simulation was repeated at speed to produce a Campbell Diagram to highlight synchronous excitation crossings. / Master of Science

An experimental investigation was performed to measure Reynolds stresses in the turbulent flow downstream of a large-scale linear turbine cascade. A rotatable X-wire hot-wire probe that allows redundant data to be taken with solution for mean velocities and turbulence quantities by least-squares fitting procedures was developed. This measurement technique was verified in a fully-developed turbulent pipe flow; the results show the accuracy of the probe when used in an end-flow orientation at various incidence angles and with a multiple number of angular settings. Traverses with a single hot-wire at mid-span near the blade row exit show very high levels of turbulence locally in the blade wake near the trailing edge which quickly lessen in magnitude downstream. The rotatable X-wire was used to obtain the Reynolds stresses on a measurement plane located 10% of an axial chord downstream of the trailing edge. Here the turbulence kinetic energy exhibits a distribution resembling the contours of total pressure loss obtained previously, but is highest in the blade wake where losses are relatively low. The turbulent shear stresses obtained are consistent in sign and magnitude with the gradients of mean velocity. The mass-averaged turbulence kinetic energy accounts for 21% of the total pressure loss at this measurement plane. / Master of Science

There currently exists no reliable, non-destructive method for measuring stress in railroads and other similar structures without the need for a calibration measurement. Major limitations which have hindered previous techniques include sensitivity to boundary conditions, insensitivity to stress, and intolerance for material and geometry uncertainty. In this work, a technique is developed which seeks to solve these challenges by extracting the spectrum relation, or dispersion curve, of a waveguide from dispersive wave propagation meaasurements. The technique is based on spectral analysis of waves in structures modeled as beams, and as such is based on relatively low frequency vibrations, as opposed to other techniques which use nonlinear elastic modeling of structures at ultrasonic frequencies. The major contribution of this work is the development of a frequency-domain based signal processing technique which is capable of compensating for the dispersive, long wavelength reflections which have limited the ability of previous techniques to go low enough in frequency to achieve high stress sensitivity. By compensating for reflections, the present work is able to automate the process of analyzing wave propagation signals such that the entire dispersion curve can be extracted, enabling the identification of various parameters including stress, stiffness, density, and other material and geometry properties. This in turn enables measuring stress, performing model-updating for material and geometry uncertainty, and being indifferent to boundary conditions. The theory and algorithmic implementation is presented, along with simulations and experimental validation on a rectangular beam. / Master of Science / The ability to detect damage or the potential for damage in structures is highly desirable, especially in industries such as civil infrastructure in which failure can be incredibly costly and dangerous. In particular, non-destructive techniques which can predict failure without interfering with the operations of a structure are particularly sought after. In this work, a technique for non-intrusively and non-destructively measuring stress is developed, with the primary application being for measuring stress in railroads. The technique seeks to advance the state-of-the-art in wave-propagation-based techniques by adding the capability to automatically identify reflected waves. With this new capability, the method is able to quickly and efficiently analyze a large set of vibration measurements to extract information about the structure's material, geometry, and loading characteristics which enables solving for stress even when the structures material, geometry, and boundary conditions are not precisely known. The technique is demonstrated on both simulated and experimental data, in which a rectangular beam is tensioned and the stress is then identified.

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