This dissertation studies the political economy of natural resources and how these resources may pose an opportunity or a threat to a country and comprises three essays. The first essay explores how economic development can impact the consumption behavior of natural resources, with focus on fossil fuels. It suggests the existence of an inverted U-shaped relationship between fossil fuel share in the energy mix and economic development. Particularly, the essay illustrates an evidence that fossil fuel's share in the energy mix increases as a country develops, however, after reaching a real income per capita of around US$16,000, the country reduces the share of fossil fuel in its energy mix. Perhaps this policy shift is due to concerns about air quality from its population. The second essay analyzes the impact of foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows on the risk of violence both theoretically and empirically. The theoretical model suggests that FDI inflows into skilled-labor intensive resources sector reduce the risk of violence, while such inflows increase the likelihood of violence when these are channeled through the unskilled-labor intensive resources sector. The empirical analysis focusing Sub-Saharan African countries indeed supports the outcome of the theoretical model. To understand the donor behavior in aid allocation, the third essay presents a theoretical model of aid allocation and political alignment. The equilibrium of this model suggests that geopolitical alignment with the donors increases the aid receipts. The model also suggests that donors allocate more aid to recipient countries with higher human capital levels. These propositions are empirically tested using a unique dataset of aid allocation by the resource-rich Arab donors. The results of empirical analysis support the predictions of the theoretical model.

After more than twenty years of increasing understanding of the human immunodeficiency virus known as HIV, the virus continues to spread throughout the world, manifesting itself lethally in the form of the Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). With no cure or affordable treatment presently available for the majority of the people of sub-Saharan Africa and the African nation of Malawi, work aimed at preventing the spread of the virus continues to be the best strategy for lessening its impact, both at a personal level and across populations. Most people and communities in this part of the world demonstrate some understanding of HIV and its impact, and strategies such as condom use and abstinence education are familiar program interventions. However, less is known about how social and cultural processes influence personal risk taking and decision making related to HIV/AIDS. In this research, participatory research activities involving planning and producing dramas provide a venue for exploration of how rural Malawian communities can investigate and confront HIV/AIDS social causality through analyzing, planning and acting, presenting, and critiquing research. This research studies the role that shared agreement or consensus plays in developing a community's AIDS-related knowledge and in creating community-specific priorities for AIDS prevention activities. This aspect of the research is significant for applications of participatory research in community AIDS work. The research was designed so that information was collected from individuals participating in the interventions both before and after the interventions. This was intended to facilitate a better understanding of how participatory research affected group knowledge. The analytical process of Cultural Domain Analysis was used in conjunction with the non-probabilistic analytical technique of consensus modeling to gauge whether changes in agreement or consensus occurred as a result of participatory activities among intervention groups.

Access to appropriate sanitation facilities as well as access to clean drinking water are considered fundamental human rights (Carr, 2001; Bjorklund & Sjodin, 2010), yet roughly 2.5 billion people on the planet lack access to an improved form of sanitation (WHO/UNICEF, 2014). Additionally, many entities responsible for emergency excreta management and sanitation management design guidelines, specifically solids accumulation rates in latrine pits, use rates that are 30-60 years old and may be established from dated knowledge on diet and lifestyle trends (Franceys et al., 1992; Harvey et al., 2002; Harvey, 2007). Using solids accumulation rates that are dated as well as non-local can lead to under design of latrine pits (latrine pits fill faster than expected and designed) or over design of latrine pits (resources and materials are over used in construction and design). Previous research showed that solids accumulation rates in pit latrines ranged from 18 L/person/year to 70 L/person/year though no accumulation rates have been reported for schools. The reported differences in solids accumulation rates were found to depend largely on local user rates and behaviors, the amount of material added to the latrine (both organic and inorganic matter), and the porosity of the soil surrounding the pit. Wood (2013) suggested that solid waste could compose 10-40% of waste accumulated in a pit. Furthermore, fecal generation rates of individuals were also found to differ by country, region and individual (Franceys et al., 1992). An assessment of several methods for measuring accumulation rates was also performed. It was determined that the laser distance meter technique, as well as the use of a graduated metal rod were the best two ways to determine slab to pit content depths in rural communities. Compared to other methods, such as the stereographic imaging technique, and the automated laser scanner technique, the laser distance meter technique and the use of a graduated rod require less expertise and do not require camera and computer resources. This study also developed a method to assess solids accumulation rates of latrines at three rural schools in Saclepea City, Nimba County, Liberia. Depth measurements were taken from the latrine slab to the surface of the pit contents from early May 2014 until mid-June 2014. The accumulation rates were found to be extremely similar for each latrine for all measurements taken, with differences in depth of only 1-3 cm observed over the six-week measurement period. Little research was identified on the effects of feminine waste on solids accumulation rates in latrines and no literature was found concerning the effects of feminine excretions on the degradation of pit contents. More research is thus needed to assess the possible effects the addition of menstrual blood and menstrual excretions can have on degradation rates as well as the lifespan of viruses and other infectious agents in pit contents and the surrounding soil. This is particularly important with the presence of contaminated wastes from victims of Ebola Virus Disease being disposed of in latrines and other sanitation infrastructure in rural areas of West Africa.

Introduction The Integrated Management of Childhood Illness (IMCI) is a multicomponent health system strengthening initiative widely adopted in Sub-Saharan Africa to improve poor child health outcomes. Implementation and subsequent evaluation have largely centered on the clinical management component. This study examines the clinical component in tandem with the facility improvement component, while capturing aspects of the community component over a ten year period. Methods The study utilizes a modified Donabedian quality measurement model where expected outcomes are a function of the process and structural components of healthcare quality which corresponds respectively to the clinical management and facility improvement components of the IMCI strategy. The data source is the Demographic Health Survey-Services Provision Assessment on Kenya for years 1999, 2004 and 2010 and it consists of a sample of 3,884 children and their caretakers seeking care at 1,523 health facilities. Bivariate analyses examine the change in health quality indicators and the quality indices (aggregated quality indicators) over time. Then negative binomial models assess the effect of the process and structural quality indices on the Caretaker Perceived Quality of Care (CPQoC) over time. Results Since IMCI implementation in Kenya, the clinical management and facility improvement indicators have not followed a pattern of consistent improvement while the quality indices increased consistently over time. The technical aspects of care have a higher effect on the CPQoC than the structural aspects and some of the interpersonal aspects of care were statistically significant. Privately managed facilities showed the highest impact while access to care had no impact on the CPQoC. Conclusion The findings underscore the importance of clinical management while recognizing the importance of the facility and community components of the IMCI. Revising the strategy to encourage implementation of all components with increased emphasis on the community components as well as ownership from national governments can improve child health outcomes in the region. / 1 / Felicia Aurora Osenkor Amoah

ABSTRACT Self-supply is widely reported across various contexts, filling gaps left by other forms of water supply provision. This research assesses low-cost household groundwater supply technologies in markets in developing country contexts of sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America, with a focus on the potential for improving Self-supply technology implementation and markets in sub-Saharan Africa. Specifically, a mature and unsubsidized Self-supply market for Pitcher Pump systems (suction pumps fitted onto hand-driven boreholes) is studied in an urban context in Madagascar, EMAS low-cost water supply technologies are assessed in Bolivia, and a technical comparison is completed with manual EMAS Pumps and family versions of the Rope Pump in Uganda. In Madagascar, locally manufactured Pitcher Pump systems are widely provided by the local private sector, enabling households to access shallow groundwater. This market has developed over several decades, reaching a level of maturity and scale, with 9000 of these systems estimated to be in use in the eastern port city of Tamatave. The market is supplied by more than 50 small businesses that manufacture and install the systems at lower cost (US$35-100) than a connection to the piped water supply system. Mixed methods are used to assess the performance of the Pitcher Pump systems and characteristics of the market. Discussion includes a description of the manufacturing process and sales network that supply Pitcher Pump systems, environmental health concerns related to water quality, pump performance and system management. The research additionally considers the potential of EMAS low-cost household water supply technologies in accelerating Self-supply in sub-Saharan Africa, and consists of a field assessment of EMAS groundwater supply systems (handpumps on manually-driven boreholes) and rainwater harvesting systems as used at the household level in Bolivia, focusing on user experiences and the medium/long-term sustainability of the pump (cost, functionality, etc.). The EMAS Pump is a low-cost manual water-lifting device appropriate for use at the household level. Developed in the 1980s, the EMAS Pump has been marketed extensively for local manufacture and use at the household level in Bolivia, and marketed to a lesser extent in other developing countries (mainly in South and Central America). The simple design of the EMAS Pump, using materials commonly found locally in developing countries, allows for it to be fabricated in many rural developing community contexts. Its capability for pumping from significant depths to heights above the pump head makes it quite versatile (e.g. for pumping to household tanks, reservoirs at higher elevations, or for installing multiple pumps on wells). A survey/inspection of 79 EMAS Pumps on household water supply systems in areas of three regions of Bolivia (La Paz, Santa Cruz and Beni regions) showed nearly all EMAS Pumps (78 out of 79) to be operational. 85% of these operational pumps were found to be functioning normally, including 72% that were reported to have been installed eleven or more years earlier. It is shown that rural households in Bolivia are able to maintain EMAS Pumps. The EMAS Pump can be installed and repaired by local technicians, and numerous examples were seen of small groups of local technicians that operate small businesses installing and repairing such systems. The cost of a new EMAS Pump was reported by users to be US$ 30-45. Maintenance and repair costs of the EMAS Pump were found to be reasonable, with pump valve replacement (the repair most commonly reported by users) costing an average of US$9 (materials and labor). The Rope Pump has some similar attributes to the EMAS Pump, in that it is can be made locally from materials commonly available in developing communities, it has a relatively low cost, and is simple to understand. The Rope Pump is well-known among international rural water supply professionals, and thus serves as a good baseline to compare the lesser-known EMAS Pump. A technical comparison completed in Uganda of the EMAS Pump and the Rope Pump considered performance (flow rates and energy expended, pumping from various depths), material costs, and requirements for local manufacture. The study concluded that, based on its relative low-cost (material costs ranging from 21-60% that of the family Rope Pump, dependent on depth and pumping pipe size), similar technical performance to the Rope Pump when pumping from a range of depths, and the minimal resources needed to construct it, the EMAS Pump has potential for success in household water supply systems in sub-Saharan Africa. Combined with the conclusion from the research in Bolivia, it is believed that there is considerable potential for the EMAS Pump as a low-cost option for Self-supply systems in sub-Saharan Africa. Recommendations for further research focus on: (1) improvements to the Pitcher Pump system (focusing on reducing risk of water contamination); (2) formative research to identify factors that have led to the sustainability of the Pitcher Pump market in eastern Madagascar, and (3) development of the Self-Supply Market in Madagascar beyond Pitcher Pump systems.

<p>The shift from a US-centered food regime, shaped by protectionist state-governed agriculture, to a corporate food regime, focusing on establishing transnational agribusinesses, led to various changes in livestock production and trade. This essay investigates the extent to which this shift has affected the trade relations between Brazil, Sub-Saharan Africa and the EU, by<br />comparing trends in trade and production of poultry.</p><p>By using statistics from trade databases Comtrade and the Market Access Database, trends in Brazilian export flows to selected countries in Sub-Saharan Africa are presented and evaluated. These trends suggest an increase in Brazilian poultry import to some countries, namely South Africa, Cameroon, Senegal and Gabon, not including the dramatic drop in 2006, possibly caused by exogenous factors, such as a global decrease in poultry demand because of outbreaks of Avian Influenza. European trade with Sub-Saharan Africa has to a  moderate degree decreased or stagnated in some countries in the region, which could be explained by a high European domestic demand and a strong euro.</p><p>The agribusiness structure in Brazil suggests a strong connection to the characteristics making up the corporate food regime, and their success and expansion point toward a continued increase in poultry market shares, in turn suggesting stronger influence on the global market. Hence, the gains of trade liberalization are toned down for developing countries, seeing that trade with subsidized developed countries is being replaced with that of developing countries.<br /><br /></p>

<p><p>Internationalization research has for a long time been dominated by a strong focus on how large firms from large and developed economies expand into other developed countries. Until recently, little attention has been devoted towards understanding that part of the internationalization process in which small and medium sized firms from small and open economies, attempt to establish themselves in undeveloped countries. This research gap is the point of departure for this thesis.</p><p> </p><p>By using a recently published conceptual framework by Laanti et al. (2009) the authors study how five groups of factors have shaped the internationalization process of a small Swedish electricity company in the midst of starting up business in Congo Kinshasa. In this in-depth single-case study, data was collected through semi-structured interviews with representatives of PPC Engineering AB. The study finds that the importance of different factors vary throughout the process, but in this case, when seen as a whole, <em>host country factors</em> and <em>company specific factors </em>play the most prominent roles. Furthermore, Laanti et al.’s (2009) conceptual framework is redesigned to explain the dynamic process of internationalization. However, more research is needed to determine the extent to which this framework can be generalized.</p></p>

<p>The study utilized a qualitative case study design to explore the problem of poor access to ART in Benue State. PLWHAs, policy makers, program managers and health workers were involved in an effort to describe the factors influencing access to ART in the State. Semi structured interviews, exit interviews and focus group discussions were used. To analyse the findings, categorization was done into facilitators and barriers to access, in addition to the ways respondents believe these barriers can be overcome. Other sub-themes were also identified and sorted. Themes were linked to direct quotes from the respondents. Additional literature review was done to review available information on the themes identified. Facilitators of access included free cost and increased number of sites / beneficial effects of ART / disclosure, membership in a support group and having a treatment partner. Barriers included stigma and discrimination / hunger, poverty, transportation and opportunity costs / hospital factors / non-disclosure / inaccurate knowledge and perceptions about HIV and ART / certain religious beliefs and advice / coverage, capping of services and fear of non-availability of ART. In addition to stigma, patients bypass closer ART access points to further away hospitals because of business opportunities / financial assistance / perceived better standard of care and hope that a cure, when found, will be more accessible to patients in bigger hospitals.</p>

Internationalization research has for a long time been dominated by a strong focus on how large firms from large and developed economies expand into other developed countries. Until recently, little attention has been devoted towards understanding that part of the internationalization process in which small and medium sized firms from small and open economies, attempt to establish themselves in undeveloped countries. This research gap is the point of departure for this thesis.   By using a recently published conceptual framework by Laanti et al. (2009) the authors study how five groups of factors have shaped the internationalization process of a small Swedish electricity company in the midst of starting up business in Congo Kinshasa. In this in-depth single-case study, data was collected through semi-structured interviews with representatives of PPC Engineering AB. The study finds that the importance of different factors vary throughout the process, but in this case, when seen as a whole, host country factors and company specific factors play the most prominent roles. Furthermore, Laanti et al.’s (2009) conceptual framework is redesigned to explain the dynamic process of internationalization. However, more research is needed to determine the extent to which this framework can be generalized.

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