Este trabalho tem o objetivo de conhecer a cultura da cana-de-açúcar no estado de São Paulo, focalizando de modo geral seu desenvolvimento, sua evolução histórica e os contextos, que esta cultura sofreu nas mudanças do período 1950-2010. A partir do começo do século XX a região Centro-Sul passou a ser o polo dinamizador do desenvolvimento brasileiro e, em pouco tempo tornou-se o mais importante mercado consumidor interno de açúcar e também como processador da cana colhida. Segue nessa linha a Segunda Guerra Mundial, e a crise do petróleo na década de 1970, que provocaram mudanças institucionais, como o PROÁLCOOL, Planalsucar e PRO-OESTE, alicerçando um Ambiente Institucional de incentivos que impactará na distribuição da cultura canavieira nas mesorregiões do Estado. Houve, entretanto, a substituição de outras culturas agrícolas no Estado, e a consequente diminuição, ou em maior grau, o aumento em termos de mesorregiões e municípios. Além disso, o sistema aumentou sua produção baseado em maior frequência por aumentos de área (Contribuição de Área), indicando o caráter extensivo do plantio. No entanto, quando é observado o período como um todo, evidencia-se a Contribuição de Rendimentos, mostrando o papel do melhoramento em proporcionar não somente a produtividade, mas a melhor adaptação da cultura em áreas que começaram a se destacar após os anos 1950. / This Project intends to know the sugar cane culture in São Paulo state focusing, in a general view, the development and historical evolution, as the contexts which this culture passed by during the changes in the periods from 1950 to 2010. Since the beginning of the 20th century, the South-Central region started promoting dynamics in Brazilian development and, in a short time, it became the most important internal market costumer of sugar and also a processor of harvest cane. Continuing at this point, we have the Second World War and the petrol crisis in the 70s, causing institutional changes, as PRÓALCOOL, Planalsucar and PRO-OESTE building an institutional environment of incentives that impact the distribution of the culture cane in the middle regions of the state. However, there was the substitution of other agriculture cultures in the state, and the consequent decreasing or, in higher degree the increasing, talking about middle regions and cities. Besides that, the system increased their production based on greater frequency for increasing on the area (Contribution for the area), indicating the extensive plantation nature. However, when the period is observed at large is noticed the Contribution of the yields, showing the upgrade role in promoting not only the productivity, but also the better adaptation of this culture in areas that started showing up after the 50s.

In part A, the effect of varying short-chain alkyl substitution on the spectroscopic properties of cyanine dyes was examined. Molar absorptivities and quantum yields were determined for groups of pentamethine and heptamethine dyes for which the substitution of the indole nitrogen was varied. For both sets of dyes, increasing alkyl chain length did not significantly change quantum yield or molar absorptivity. These results may be useful in designing new cyanine dyes. In part B, the effect of structure on the suitability of 2,4,6-trisubstituted pyridines as color pH indicators was studied by determining spectral effects of protonation, molar absorptivities, pKa values, and the structural origin of the spectral behavior. Good color indicating properties result from aniline substitution at the 4 position of pyridine and electron donating substitution at the 2 and 6 positions of pyridine, which provide a strong red shift in the spectra and greater red shifted peak absorptivity, respectively.

ªí­±¤Æ¾Ç»â°ì¤¤¡A¬ã¨s¹L´çª÷Äݳ洹ªí­±¤W§lªþºA¤A°ò(C2H5)¤§¤ÏÀ³¡A¤w¦³¬Û·í¦hªº³ø¾É¡C¨ä¦@ÃѬ°£]-H®ø¥h(£]-elimination)§Î¦¨¤A²m(C2H4)²æªþ¬O¥D­n¤ÏÀ³¸ô®|¡C¥»¬ã¨s«h¥H¤£¦Pµ{«×¬t¨ú¥Nªº¤A°ò(ethyl)¡GCF3CF2-¡BCHF2CF2-¡BCF3CHF-¡BCF3CH2-¤ÎCH3CH2-§@¬°¹ï·Ó¡A§lªþ¦bCu(100)³æ´¹­±¤W¥Hµ{·Å¤ÏÀ³/²æªþ(TPR/D)¹êÅç±´°Q¤ÏÀ³¾÷ºc¡Aµ²ªGÅã¥Ü«e¨âºØ¼Ë«~¥ý¶i¦æ£\-F®ø¥h§Î¦¨Ethylideneªí­±¤¤¶¡Åé¡A«eªÌ¦A¦Û¨­°¸¦X©ó350K¥Í¦¨CF3-CF=CF-CF3¡A¦Ó«áªÌ°¸¦X©ó300K¥Í¦¨CHF2-CF=CF-CHF2¡C«á¤TºØ¼Ë«~«hµo¥Í£]®ø¥hª½±µ²£¥ÍCHF=CF2(310K)¡BCH2=CF2(225K)©MCH2=CH2(250K)¡C¥Ñ©ó­n¶i¦æ¸û§C·Å¤§£]®ø¥h¤ÏÀ³®É¡A¹L´çºA§e¥­­±¤ÎEclipsedºc«¬(¦p¥k¹Ï)¡CÂǥѦ¹¬Ý¥X«e¨âºØ¼Ë«~¤§£]¸ô®|¹L´çºA¬O¨ã¦³¨â¹ïF-F¤¬¥¸§@¥Î¡A³o¨Ï±o¹L´çºA¸û¤£Ã­©w¡A¯à»Ùª@°ª¾É­P¤ÏÀ³¸ô®|Â੹¬Û¹ï¯à»Ù¥i¯à¸û§C¤§£\®ø¥h¡C«á¤TºØ¼Ë«~¦æ£]®ø¥h¤§¹L´çºA¦]¦³¸û¤ÖF-F±Æ¥¸¡A©Ò¥H¦æ£]®ø¥h¤ÏÀ³¡C¨Ï¥Î¼ÒÀÀ­pºâªºµ²ªG¤]Åã¥Ü¡A·í©Mª÷ÄÝÁäµ²ªº£\ºÒ¤W¨ã¬t¨ú¥N®É°£³y¦¨ªºÁä¯àÅܱj¡A¥ç·|³y¦¨¦b¹L´çºA¦b¶i¦æª÷ÄÝ-ºÒÁäÂ_µõ®É¯à»Ù¤É°ª¦Ó¶}±Ò¬Û¹ï¯à»Ù¥i¯à¸û§C¤§£\®ø¥h³q¹D¡C¬ã¨sµ²ªG©Ò¤Ï¬M¤A°ò¤W¬t¨ú¥N¦ì¸m¤Îµ{«×¤£¦P©Ò³y¦¨ªº¤ÏÀ³¸ô®|ªº¿ï¾Ü©Ê¡A§¡¥i¥Ñ¤W­z¹L´çºA¤©¥H¦X²zªº¸ÑÄÀ¡C

Este trabalho tem o objetivo de conhecer a cultura da cana-de-açúcar no estado de São Paulo, focalizando de modo geral seu desenvolvimento, sua evolução histórica e os contextos, que esta cultura sofreu nas mudanças do período 1950-2010. A partir do começo do século XX a região Centro-Sul passou a ser o polo dinamizador do desenvolvimento brasileiro e, em pouco tempo tornou-se o mais importante mercado consumidor interno de açúcar e também como processador da cana colhida. Segue nessa linha a Segunda Guerra Mundial, e a crise do petróleo na década de 1970, que provocaram mudanças institucionais, como o PROÁLCOOL, Planalsucar e PRO-OESTE, alicerçando um Ambiente Institucional de incentivos que impactará na distribuição da cultura canavieira nas mesorregiões do Estado. Houve, entretanto, a substituição de outras culturas agrícolas no Estado, e a consequente diminuição, ou em maior grau, o aumento em termos de mesorregiões e municípios. Além disso, o sistema aumentou sua produção baseado em maior frequência por aumentos de área (Contribuição de Área), indicando o caráter extensivo do plantio. No entanto, quando é observado o período como um todo, evidencia-se a Contribuição de Rendimentos, mostrando o papel do melhoramento em proporcionar não somente a produtividade, mas a melhor adaptação da cultura em áreas que começaram a se destacar após os anos 1950. / This Project intends to know the sugar cane culture in São Paulo state focusing, in a general view, the development and historical evolution, as the contexts which this culture passed by during the changes in the periods from 1950 to 2010. Since the beginning of the 20th century, the South-Central region started promoting dynamics in Brazilian development and, in a short time, it became the most important internal market costumer of sugar and also a processor of harvest cane. Continuing at this point, we have the Second World War and the petrol crisis in the 70s, causing institutional changes, as PRÓALCOOL, Planalsucar and PRO-OESTE building an institutional environment of incentives that impact the distribution of the culture cane in the middle regions of the state. However, there was the substitution of other agriculture cultures in the state, and the consequent decreasing or, in higher degree the increasing, talking about middle regions and cities. Besides that, the system increased their production based on greater frequency for increasing on the area (Contribution for the area), indicating the extensive plantation nature. However, when the period is observed at large is noticed the Contribution of the yields, showing the upgrade role in promoting not only the productivity, but also the better adaptation of this culture in areas that started showing up after the 50s.

Today, a lot of resources are put into researching technological solutions concerning “carbon neutral” displacement materials and products, with the common goal of mitigating the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The aim of this study was to find out whether a displacement of concrete to glulam beams, in the construction industry, could create substitution effects that reduces the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. To go about this, interviews were conducted with one producer of glulam beams, four construction companies and a non-profit foundation that funds research in fire prevention. Furthermore, sustainability declarations of glulam beams from three glulam beam producers, were analyzed. To compare carbon dioxide emissions in different scenarios, the interview results, as well as the sustainability declarations of the glulam beam producers, were compared and examined. Calculations of carbon dioxide sequestered in glulam beams and emitted from the concrete industry in Sweden were also regarded. The results showed that the possible substitution effects derived from a displacement of concrete to glulam beams, would have a small mitigating impact on the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. However, recent findings point out that the pay back period for harvested trees, is longer than assumed. Moreover, the concrete production is not decreasing, but increasing. In respect of Jevons’ paradox (which concludes that higher efficiency in production leads to more consumption, not less), the conclusion of this study, was that no substitution will mitigate enough CO2 in the atmosphere. Our approach to consumption is what must change.

The aim of this thesis is to explore the quantitative potential to reduce energy requirements and CO2 emissions through changed patterns of consumption, given unchanged levels of consumption expenditure. The thesis question is analysed using a systems analysis approach which in this case means that life cycle assessment data on energy requirements and CO2 emissions related to household consumption are combined with a financial and behavioural analysis to make sure that the budget constraint is kept and that both the first and second order effects of adopting a green consumption pattern are analysed. The budget constraints are kept using a general linear model. By using marginal propensities to spend to direct the reallocation of saved or deficit money calculated utility is maintained as far as possible. Further, investigations explore the impact of individual household demographic characteristics and geographic context on household consumption patterns, energy requirements and CO2 emissions. The key result of this thesis is that changed household behaviour, choosing “green“ products and energy efficient technology will not make a big difference. What can be achieved in the short time perspective by adopting an almost completely green consumption pattern and energy efficient technology is a reduction of energy requirements by around 8% and CO2 emissions by around 13%. With a longer time perspective and further technological change that provides additional possibilities to move consumption patterns in a greener direction, the effect on energy requirements and CO2 emissions is still fairly small. By 2020, the potential to reduce energy requirements is around 13% and CO2 emissions around 25%. In the most extreme scenario (2050), the scope for reducing energy requirements is 17% and for CO2 emissions 30%. All these reductions will be outpaced by growth in income almost as soon as they are implemented. Of policy relevance the results reveal that very limited impact can be expected by a policy relying on greener consumption patterns, whether adopted voluntarily or as a result of incentives such as tax changes. Such a policy cannot achieve more than a small and temporary reduction to growth in energy requirements and CO2 emissions. It is also shown that, prescribing specific consumption patterns as a means of reducing energy requirements and CO2 emissions has to be done with care. This is illustrated by one of the experiments in which adopting a partly green consumption pattern, a green diet, in fact increased total energy requirements and CO2 emissions. This, and the results of all the other experiments show the importance of applying a systems approach. It demonstrates that life cycle data alone are irrelevant for assessing the total effects of adopting green consumption patterns. Further research on the potential to reduce energy requirements and CO2 emissions thus primarily needs to better capture system wide effects rather than to improve on, and fine tune the measurement of the energy requirements and CO2 emissions related to individual products.

Au cours de ces dernières années, les Déchets Solides Municipaux (DSM) se sont révélés comme une problématique environnementale et économique majeure dans tous les pays. Les quantités collectées et les dépenses publiques nécessaires à leurs gestions croissent de façon insoutenable et ce, particulièrement dans les pays en développement (y compris ceux en transition). Face à ce constat, notre thèse a pour objectif de proposer des éléments de compréhension ainsi que des recommandations pour les politiques publiques. Pour cela, nous avons combiné une approche macroéconomique, pour étudier les liens entre la quantité de DSM et la croissance économique, à une approche microéconomique centrée sur la question du financement par une taxe incitative. Les contributions de cette thèse sont de trois ordres et ont pour référence les pays méditerranéens. La première contribution a consisté à tester la viabilité de l’hypothèse de la Courbe Environnementale de Kuznets (CEK) dans un contexte d’ouverture au commerce international. Cette première approche a permis de déceler une relation monotone croissante entre l’intensité de la production des DSM et la croissance économique sur la période 1990-2010 et ce, quel que soit le niveau de revenu des pays. Ce qui nous conduit à la conclusion d’une incompatibilité entre les objectifs de croissance et de prévention de la production des DSM. La deuxième contribution a été l’occasion de considérer, dans un modèle théorique, le recyclage informel qui est une caractéristique commune au pays en développement. L’objectif de cette contribution a été d’une part d’analyser l’impact du recyclage informel sur l’efficacité d’une politique de taxation incitative et d’autre part, de déterminer les conditions optimales d’une telle politique en présence du recyclage informel. En étudiant l’efficacité d’une politique de taxation directe de type tarification à l’acte et d’une politique de taxation indirecte de type Deposit and Refund System (DRS), nous montrons que la présence du recyclage informel ne permet pas de faire coïncider optimum social et équilibre du marché. Cependant, la politique DRS peut être optimale, à condition de subventionner à la fois le recyclage formel et informel. Enfin, la troisième contribution est une étude économétrique des impacts du système de taxation incitative d’un pays riche méditerranéen. Cette étude vient du constat selon lequel les pays riches, contrairement aux pays en développement, mettent en œuvre plusieurs taxes incitatives de façon concomitante. Nous évaluons l’efficacité du système de taxation de la France, qui avec ses trois taxes incitatives est un cas d’école en la matière. Nous proposons dans cette contribution, à l’aide de tests économétriques sur données départementales, une mesure de l’élasticité de la quantité de DSM collectés, valorisés et éliminés par rapport à la Redevance sur l’Enlèvement des Ordures Ménagères (REOM), la Responsabilité Élargie du Producteur (REP) et la Taxe Générales sur les Activités Polluantes (TGAP). Les résultats montrent une complémentarité des trois taxes avec une supériorité de la REOM pour inciter les ménages à la prévention et à la valorisation, et une supériorité de la REP pour inciter les collectivités locales à la substitution des technologies d’élimination à celles de valorisation / In last decades, Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) has become a major environmental and economic problem in many countries. The quantity of MSW collected and the expenditures necessary for its management have rapidly increased, particularly in developing countries (including those in transition). Our thesis aims to shed light on the relationship between MSW collection and economic growth and to propose how public policy can sustainably manage this pollution. To attempt our objective, we combined a macro and micro economic approaches in theoretical and empirical studies. The contributions of this thesis are threefold and have the scope of Mediterranean countries. First, we complete the empirical literature on the validation of the Environmental Kuznets Curve hypothesis (EKC) by studying the relationship between MSW collected and the economic growth over the period 1990-2010. The main added value of this study is the use of multiple imputations methodology to control for the sample bias due to missing values. We find out that MSW collected monotonically increase with income whatever countries’ income level. This leads us to conclude that the economic growth and MSW prevention are not compatible. So in a second contribution, we investigate, in a theoretical model, the efficiency of using market-based incentives to reach to objective of waste prevention and diversion from disposal in developing countries. We consider the common phenomenon of waste picking in these countries and we analyze the conditions in which a policy of Deposit and Refund System (DRS) can help to achieve the first best optimum. We first analyze the impact of waste picking on the effectiveness of the user fee and the DRS, then we show that social optimum and market equilibrium can be hold by taxing consumer goods and by subsidizing both formal recycling and waste picking. Our third contribution in this thesis is an econometric evaluation of French MSW taxing system in order to test the hypothesis of the complementarity of direct and indirect MSW incentive taxes in developed countries, which implement simultaneously several incentives taxes. Using data aggregate at French administrative departments level, we assess the prevention and substitution effects of the three incentive taxes namely the French user fee (La Redevance d’Enlèvement des Ordures Ménagères), the Extended Producer responsibility and disposal tax levied at landfill and incineration (la Taxe Générale sur les Activités Polluantes). We confirm the complementarity hypothesis of these taxes.