Thesis (PhD (Genetics. Plant Biotechnology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / The main aim of the work presented in this thesis was to elucidate the apparent role of pyrophosphate fructose 6-phosphate 1-phosphotransferase (PFP) in sucrose accumulation in sugarcane. PFP activity in sugarcane internodal tissue is inversely correlated to the sucrose content and positively to the water-insoluble component across varieties which differ in their capacities to accumulate sucrose. This apparent well defined and important role of PFP seems to stand in contrast to the ambiguity regarding PFP’s role in the general literature as well as the results of various transgenic studies where neither the downregulation nor the over-expression of PFP activity had a major influence on the phenotype of transgenic potato and tobacco plants. Based on this it was therefore thought that either the kinetic properties of sugarcane PFP is significantly different than that of other plant PFPs or that PFP’s role in sucrose accumulating tissues is different from that in starch accumulating tissues. In the first part of the study sugarcane PFP was therefore purified and its molecular and kinetic properties were determined. It consisted of two subunits which aggregated in dimeric, tetrameric and octameric forms depending on the presence of Fru 2,6-P2. Both the glycolytic and gluconeogenic reactions had broad pH optima and the kinetic parameters for all the substrates were comparable to that of other plant PFPs. The conclusion was therefore that sugarcane PFP’s molecular and kinetic characteristics do not differ significantly from that of other plant PFPs. The only direct way to confirm if PFP is involved in sucrose accumulation in sugarcane is to alter its levels in the same genetic background through genetic engineering. This was therefore the second focus of this study. PFP activity was successfully down-regulated in sugarcane. The transgenic plants showed no visible phenotype under greenhouse and field conditions and sucrose concentrations in their immature internodes were significantly increased. PFP activity was inversely correlated with sucrose content in the immature internodes of the transgenic lines. Both the immature and mature internodes of the transgenic plants had significantly higher fibre contents. This study suggests that PFP plays a significant role in glycolytic carbon flux in immature, metabolically active sugarcane internodal tissues. The data presented here confirm that PFP can indeed have an influence on the rate of glycolysis and carbon partitioning in these tissues. It also implies that there are no differences between the functions of PFP in starch and sucrose storing tissues and it supports the hypothesis that PFP provides additional glycolytic capacity to PFK at times of high metabolic flux in biosynthetically active tissue. This work will serve as a basis to refine future genetic manipulation strategies and could make a valuable contribution to the productivity of South African sugarcane varieties.

A presente dissertação analisa a evolução histórica do corte mecanizado no Estado de São Paulo e os ganhos de produtividade a ele associados, no período de 1950 a 2009. Foram estudadas as alterações no perfil da mão-de-obra, os métodos de colheita, a introdução dos maquinários e as colhedoras em operação no fim da década de 2000. A produtividade do cortador de cana aumentou significativamente, no período estudado, 1950 2009, bem como das colhedoras, que tiveram grande evolução. As usinas que adotaram a colheita mecanizada integral alteraram a sazonalidade dos empregos e a capacitação dos empregados para manusear máquinas que demandam conhecimentos específicos. Dentro da lógica de racionalização dos recursos energéticos, a colheita mecanizada da cana-de-açúcar crua abre espaço para o uso da palha como recurso de defensa agrícola ou fonte complementar de energia. Conclui-se que o uso das colhedoras abriu espaço para pesquisas com a palha da cana e trouxe melhoria nas condições de trabalho para os cortadores empregados. / This dissertation examines the historical evolution of mechanized harvest in São Paulo and the productivity gains associated with it, in the period 1950 to 2009. We studied the changes in the profile of hand labor, harvesting methods, the introduction of machinery and harvesters operating in the late 2000. The productivity of cane cutters has increased significantly during the study period, 1950 - 2009, and the harvesters, who had a great evolution. The plants that have adopted the full mechanical harvesting altered the seasonality of employment and training of employees to handle machines that require specific expertise. Within the logic of rationalization of energy resources, mechanized harvesting of cane raw sugar makes room for the use of straw as a source of pesticides or complementary source of energy. We conclude that the use of harvesters paved the way for research with the straw and brought improvements in working conditions for employees cutters.

A qualidade da fibra é um dos fatores mais importantes que regulam o consumo de matéria seca dos ruminantes. A ensilagem altera a qualidade nutricional da forragem conservada. Contudo, o objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o consumo, cinética e ecossistema ruminal de tourinhos alimentados com dietas contendo cana-de-açúcar (Saccharum officinarum L.) fresca ou ensilada, com alta ou baixa digestibilidade da fibra, sobre os seguintes parâmetros: 1) consumo de matéria seca; 2) taxa de digestão e passagem ruminal da FDN; 3) parâmetros de fermentação ruminal e 4) quantificação de bactérias ruminais celulolíticas e amilolíticas. Foram utilizados oito novilhos da raça Nelore, fistulados no rúmen, com peso vivo de 275 ± 22 kg e 18 meses de idade. As rações experimentais foram compostas de 60% de concentrado na matéria seca. O delineamento experimental foi de dois quadrados latinos 4x4 contemporâneos. A massa total do conteúdo ruminal e volume foram determinados por esvaziamento total do rúmen. O genótipo de alta DFDN aumentou o consumo de MS, somente na forma de silagem. O processo de ensilagem não alterou o efeito da alta DFDN sobre o CMS. Os tratamentos com cana fresca não tiveram diferença no CMS, quanto ao genótipo da cana. O aumento da DFDN ou o modo de conservação da cana não afetaram a digesta total do rúmen, a quantidade de MS e o teor FDNi no compartimento ruminal. Já a quantidade de FDN na digesta ruminal aumentou com a redução da qualidade da fibra. A maior digestibilidade da fibra e a conservação na forma de silagem aumentaram a taxa de renovação e a taxa de passagem da FDN. A taxa de digestão foi maior para os tratamentos com silagem de cana. A alimentação com cana fresca aumentou o total de AGCC e a concentração molar de propionato. Já os tratamentos com silagem obtiveram pH mais elevado e maior concentração molar de ácido acético. A menor digestibilidade da fibra aumentou a concentração da amônia ruminal. A alimentação com cana fresca aumentou a população das bactérias amilolíticas da espécie Streptococcus bovis, assim com as bactérias fibrolíticas das espécies Ruminococcus albuns e Fibrobacter succinogenes. A maior digestibilidade da fibra aumenta a taxa de passagem e consequentemente, o consumo de matéria seca de novilhos alimentados com silagem de cana-de-açúcar. O processo de ensilagem não interfere no efeito da maior DFDN sobre o CMS. / The quality of fiber is one of the most important factors that regulate dry matter intake of ruminants. The ensiling process affects the nutritional quality of the conserved forage. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the intake, kinetics and ruminal ecosystem in young steers fed either fresh or ensiled sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.), with either high or low fiber digestibility, on the following parameters: 1) dry matter intake, 2) ruminal NDF digestion and passage rate, 3) ruminal fermentation parameters, and 4) quantification of amylolytic and cellulolytic rumen bacteria. Eight ruminally cannulated Nelore steers (275 ± 22 kg), approximately 18 months old, were used. The experimental diets contained 60% of concentrate on a dry matter basis. The experimental design was a replicated 4 x 4 Latin square. The total digesta and ruminal volume were measured by manual evacuation of digesta. Greater fiber digestibility increased DM intake only when fed as silage, therefore the ensiling process does not alter the effect of high digestibility on DMI. When fed as fresh sugarcane, the treatments (high or low NDFD) had no effect on DMI. High NDFD, or method of conservation, had no effect on rumen digesta, amounts of DM or indigestible NDF (INDF), in the rumen. Low digestibility increased the amount of NDF in the rumen. High NDFD and sugarcane preserved as silage increased ruminal NDF turnover and passage rate. Ensiling sugarcane increased the NDF digestion rate. Fresh sugarcane increased the total of SCFA and molar concentration of propionate in the rumen. Sugarcane silage treatments had a higher rumen pH and molar concentration of acetate. Low NDFD increased the concentration of ruminal ammonia. Fresh sugarcane increased the population of amylolytic and fibrolytic rumen bacteria. The higher NDFD increases the passage rate and consequently the DMI of steers fed sugarcane silage. The ensiling process does not alter the effect that high NDFD has on DMI.

Parte do malte pode ser substituído por adjuntos, que podem ser à base de cereais, ou de carboidratos de origem vegetal. A cana de açúcar constitui-se de uma matéria prima favorável à fermentação alcoólica por ser rica em carboidratos e micronutrientes, e pode ser utilizada como um adjunto do malte. Estudos de fermentação do mosto com este adjunto, na forma de caldo e de melado de cana, foram realizados na Planta Piloto de Bebidas da EEL-USP, e a partir daí, foram feitas análises físico-química, microbiológicas e sensoriais da cerveja obtida, com diferentes proporções de adjunto. As fermentações foram realizadas inicialmente em escala de bancada (1 L), utilizando mostos preparados com caldo ou melado de cana com ou sem diferentes tratamentos de clarificação, em duas concentrações diferentes (25% e 50% de caldo ou melado), além do mosto puro malte. Análises de concentração e viabilidade celular, pH, consumo de extrato e formação de etanol foram realizadas ao longo das fermentações e, também foi efetuado o cálculo de produtividade e rendimento. Os ensaios sem tratamento do caldo ou melado foram escolhidos para uma produção em uma escala de 5 L, para que análises físico-químicas e sensorial fossem realizadas. A cerveja elaborada com 25% de melado de cana sem tratamento foi a cerveja mais aceita e foi escolhida para a produção em escala piloto (200 L). Análises físico-químicas e de envelhecimento foram realizadas, e essa cerveja também foi avaliada sensorialmente juntamente com duas cervejas de mercado, onde novamente foi declarada como a mais aceita, mostrando que o melado de cana é um adjunto adequado na fabricação de cervejas, mostrando ser um potencial no mercado de bebidas. Finalmente, cervejas com melado de cana foram elaboradas na forma ale e lager em uma infra-estrutura bem equipada em um laboratório em uma universidade belga. / Part of malted barley can be replaced by adjuncts, which can be from cereals, or carbohydrates of vegetable origin. Sugarcane is a raw material favorable to the alcoholic fermentation to be rich in carbohydrates and micronutrients, and can be used as a adjunct. The wort fermentation studies with this adjunct in the form of sugarcane juice and sugarcane syrup, were performed in the Beverage Pilot Plant EEL-USP, and from there, it were made physical-chemical, microbiological and sensorial analysis with beers with different proportion of adjuncts. The fermentations were initially carried out in laboratory scale (1 L) prepared with sugarcane juice or sugarcane syrup in different treatments and in two different concentrations (25% and 50%), and also 100% of malt wort. Analysis of cell concentration and viability, pH, extract consumption and ethanol formation were held throughout the fermentations and also calculation of the productivity and yield. Assays with sugarcane juice and syrup without treatment were selected for production on a slightly larger scale (5L) and physico-chemical and sensorial analyzes were performed. Beer made with 25% of sugarcane syrup without treatment was a beer more accepted and it was chosen for the production on a pilot scale (200 L). Physico-chemical and aging analyzes were performed, and that beer was also evaluated by sensory analyzis compared with two beer market, where again it was declared as the most accepted, showing that the sugarcane syrup is a very interesting adjunct in the manufacture of beer, showing a potential in the beverage market. Finally, beers with sugarcane syrupo were prepared in ale and lager form in a well-equipped infrastructure in a laboratory in a Belgian university.

Este estudo pretende contribuir para as pesquisas sobre a agroindústria canavieira no estado de São Paulo, enfocando a expansão das usinas de açúcar e de álcool entre os anos de 1930 e 1964. Trata-se de um período especialmente marcado por crise no setor cafeeiro, acelerado processo de industrialização, direcionamento da economia para o mercado interno e intervenção estatal no ramo, com a criação do Instituto do Açúcar e do Álcool (IAA), em 1933. A conjuntura de disputas e conflitos de interesses entre as regiões Nordeste e Centro-Sul do Brasil, entre fabricantes e comerciantes, e entre usineiros e fornecedores de cana-de-açúcar, culminou na consolidação de São Paulo como principal centro sucroalcooleiro do país durante as décadas de 1940 e 1950. Com o objetivo de compreender essas questões na dinâmica usineira, o presente estudo baseou-se na trajetória da Usina Monte Alegre, em Piracicaba. Localizada no mais tradicional território canavieiro de São Paulo, esta usina iniciou suas atividades como um engenho de açúcar e tornou-se um importante complexo usineiro no período enfocado, sob a administração do imigrante Pedro Morganti e empresas da família. / This study intends to contribute to the research of the sugarcane agroindustry in the state of São Paulo, focusing on the expansion of the big sugar mills between 1930-1964. It is a period particularly marked by the crisis in the coffee sector, an accelerated industrialization process, the economy orientation towards the domestic market, and state intervention with the creation of the Instituto do Açúcar e do Álcool, in 1933. The context of disputes and conflicts of interest between the Northeast and South-Central regions of Brazil, between manufacturers and traders, and between mill owners and sugarcane suppliers resulted in the consolidation of São Paulo as the main sugar and ethanol center of the country during the decades of 1940 and 1950. In order to understand these issues under the sugarcane agroindustry dynamics, this study was based on the trajectory of Usina Monte Alegre, in Piracicaba. Located in a traditional sugarcane region of São Paulo, this plant started as a sugar plantation and became an important sugarcane mill complex in the alluded period, under the administration of the Italian-born immigrant Pedro Morganti and his family businesses.

O presente trabalho foi desenvolvido a partir de um experimento de campo, conduzido no período de setembro de 2000 a maio de 2001, na região canavieira de Piracicaba (SP), com a terceira soca da variedade SP 80-1842, cultivada em ARGISSOLO VERMELHO-AMARELO distrófico arenoso e colhida sem queima e mecanicamente. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a eficiência agronômica de diferentes fontes nitrogenadas em sistema de colheita de cana crua por meio de: a) medidas das perdas de nitrogênio por volatilização da amônia; b) avaliação do estado nutricional das plantas; c) avaliação de atributos químicos do solo; d) avaliação da produção de colmos e de açúcar; e) ava liação de atributos tecnológicos do caldo. A dose de nitrogênio foi 100 kg ha -1 de N em todos tratamentos, que também receberam 150 kg ha -1 de K2O aplicados como KCl. Utilizou-se o delineamento experimental em blocos completos casualizados, com sete níveis de fator em cinco repetições. Os fatores foram: T0 - testemunha, T1 - uréia, T2 - uran, T3- uréia + sulfato de amônio, T4 - Ajifer, T5 - uréia + gesso aplicados na superfície e T6 - Uréia incorporada. Perdas por volatilização de amônia foram avaliadas em T0, T1, T2, T3 e T4 por meio de coletores semi-aberto estáticos colocados em cada uma das parcelas em que estudou-se a volatilização. Foram colocadas seis bases distintas para cada coletor, onde aplicou-se as fontes nitrogenadas na dose de 100 kg ha -1 de N. O N-NH3 volatilizado foi retido em espumas embebidas em solução ácida e extraído com solução de KCl para posterior quantificação das perdas. Avaliações do estado nutricional das plantas, de atributos químicos do solo, de produtividade e qualidade foram efetuadas em todos tratamentos. A avaliação do estado nutricional foi feita pela análise química dos teores de nutrientes nas folhas que foram amostradas quatro meses após brotação das soqueiras. Atributos químicos do solo foram avaliados por meio de análises laboratoriais de amostras coletadas nas camadas de 0 a 5 e 5 a 10 cm de profundidade, aos três e cinco meses após aplicação dos tratamentos. A produção de colmos por hectare foi avaliada por ocasião da colheita, da mesma forma que atributos tecnológicos do caldo. Analisou-se teores de nutrientes na palha que foi amostrada aleatoriamente fora das parcelas em que aplicou-se a adubação nitrogenada. Os resultados mostraram que os tratamentos T1 e T3 apresentaram perdas por volatilização de aproximadamente 35% do N aplicado e que os tratamentos T2 e T4 apresentaram perdas de aproximadamente 15% e 9% do N aplicado, respectivamente. Teores foliares de N foram inversamente proporcionais às perdas por volatilização. A adubação nitrogenada e presença de palha aumentaram o teor de matéria orgânica nos 10 primeiros centímetros de solo. Sem a influência da adubação nitrogenada, ocorreu redução de 50% na massa seca da palhada. Não houve liberação de N e S mas a redução nas relações C/N e C/S indicou possibilidade de mineralização de nitrogênio e enxofre do resíduo vegetal. As soqueiras responderam em produtividade à adubação nitrogenada e às perdas ocorridas por volatilização de N-NH3. / The present work was advanced by a field experiment that was conducted from September 2000 to May 2001 in Piracicaba cane region with the variety SP 80-1842 in the third sugarcane cut, tilled in Arenic Kanhaplodults and with mechanical harvest without burning. The aim of this study was to evaluate the agronomic efficiency from nitrogen sources in sugarcane harvest system without burning. The efficiency was evaluated through: a) measure of N-NH3 losses, b) plant nutritional condition evaluations, c) soil chemical attribute evaluations, d) stem and sugar productions, e) sugarcane juice technological attribute evaluations. The nitrogen dose was standardized in 100 kg ha -1 in every treatment and in the same way to potassium fertilizer which dose was standardized in 150 kg ha -1 of K2O supplied by KCl. The experimental design was in complete randomized blocks with seven factor levels in five replications. The factors were: T0 - Control, T1 - Urea, T2 - Uan, T3 - Urea + ammonia sulfate, T4 - Ajifer, T5 - Urea + gypsum, T6 - Incorporated urea. Losses by ammonia volatilization were evaluated in the treatments T0, T1, T2, T3 and T4 by static semi-open NH3 collectors that were set in each experimental plot where N-NH3 losses were measured. Six different bases were set to each collector, which were applied dose to fit 100 kg ha -1 of nitrogen by different sources. The N-NH3 was collected by foam absorbers soaked in acid solution after that was extracted by KCl solution to be quantified later. Plant nutritional conditions, soil chemical attributes, productivity and quality were evaluated in every treatment. The plant nutritional conditions were evaluated by leaf chemical analysis and the leaves were sampled four months after the sugarcane sprout. Soil chemical attributes were evaluated by samples laboratories analyses and the samples were collected in 0-5 and 5-10 cm of depth four and six months after treatments application. The stem and sugar productivity and juice technological attributes were measured after the harvest. The straw was randomized sampled outside experimental plots and its nutrients content was determinate. The results showed that N-NH3 losses were nearly 35% of the nitroge n applied to T1 and T3 and losses in T2 and T4 were low, nearly 15% and 9%. The leaf diagnosis showed that leaves nitrogen content in treatments with low nitrogen losses was bigger than treatments where nitrogen losses were high. Nitrogen sources applied over the straw resulted in organic matter increase at the soil surface. It didn't happen straw nitrogen and sulfur liberation but the decrease in C/N and C/S relation indicated the possibility to happen nitrogen and sulfur liberation from the vegetal residue. The stalks of sugarcane answered in productivity to nitrogen fertilizer and to nitrogen losses.

Parte do malte pode ser substituído por adjuntos, que podem ser à base de cereais, ou de carboidratos de origem vegetal. A cana de açúcar constitui-se de uma matéria prima favorável à fermentação alcoólica por ser rica em carboidratos e micronutrientes, e pode ser utilizada como um adjunto do malte. Estudos de fermentação do mosto com este adjunto, na forma de caldo e de melado de cana, foram realizados na Planta Piloto de Bebidas da EEL-USP, e a partir daí, foram feitas análises físico-química, microbiológicas e sensoriais da cerveja obtida, com diferentes proporções de adjunto. As fermentações foram realizadas inicialmente em escala de bancada (1 L), utilizando mostos preparados com caldo ou melado de cana com ou sem diferentes tratamentos de clarificação, em duas concentrações diferentes (25% e 50% de caldo ou melado), além do mosto puro malte. Análises de concentração e viabilidade celular, pH, consumo de extrato e formação de etanol foram realizadas ao longo das fermentações e, também foi efetuado o cálculo de produtividade e rendimento. Os ensaios sem tratamento do caldo ou melado foram escolhidos para uma produção em uma escala de 5 L, para que análises físico-químicas e sensorial fossem realizadas. A cerveja elaborada com 25% de melado de cana sem tratamento foi a cerveja mais aceita e foi escolhida para a produção em escala piloto (200 L). Análises físico-químicas e de envelhecimento foram realizadas, e essa cerveja também foi avaliada sensorialmente juntamente com duas cervejas de mercado, onde novamente foi declarada como a mais aceita, mostrando que o melado de cana é um adjunto adequado na fabricação de cervejas, mostrando ser um potencial no mercado de bebidas. Finalmente, cervejas com melado de cana foram elaboradas na forma ale e lager em uma infra-estrutura bem equipada em um laboratório em uma universidade belga. / Part of malted barley can be replaced by adjuncts, which can be from cereals, or carbohydrates of vegetable origin. Sugarcane is a raw material favorable to the alcoholic fermentation to be rich in carbohydrates and micronutrients, and can be used as a adjunct. The wort fermentation studies with this adjunct in the form of sugarcane juice and sugarcane syrup, were performed in the Beverage Pilot Plant EEL-USP, and from there, it were made physical-chemical, microbiological and sensorial analysis with beers with different proportion of adjuncts. The fermentations were initially carried out in laboratory scale (1 L) prepared with sugarcane juice or sugarcane syrup in different treatments and in two different concentrations (25% and 50%), and also 100% of malt wort. Analysis of cell concentration and viability, pH, extract consumption and ethanol formation were held throughout the fermentations and also calculation of the productivity and yield. Assays with sugarcane juice and syrup without treatment were selected for production on a slightly larger scale (5L) and physico-chemical and sensorial analyzes were performed. Beer made with 25% of sugarcane syrup without treatment was a beer more accepted and it was chosen for the production on a pilot scale (200 L). Physico-chemical and aging analyzes were performed, and that beer was also evaluated by sensory analyzis compared with two beer market, where again it was declared as the most accepted, showing that the sugarcane syrup is a very interesting adjunct in the manufacture of beer, showing a potential in the beverage market. Finally, beers with sugarcane syrupo were prepared in ale and lager form in a well-equipped infrastructure in a laboratory in a Belgian university.

by Pui-nin Lee. / Thesis submitted in: August 1997. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1998. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 141-148). / Abstract also in Chinese. / List of Abbreviations --- p.I / List of Tables --- p.II / List of Figures --- p.III / Chapter Chapter 1 --- Introduction --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1 --- Sugar cane --- p.1 / Chapter 1.2 --- Mushroom: Pleurotus pulmonarius --- p.5 / Chapter 1.2.1 --- Fruiting bodies --- p.5 / Chapter 1.2.2 --- Life cycle of the mushroom --- p.6 / Chapter 1.2.3 --- Cultivation --- p.7 / Chapter 1.2.4 --- Nutrition --- p.8 / Chapter 1.2.5 --- Cardiovascular and Renal effects --- p.9 / Chapter 1.2.6 --- Dietary fiber --- p.10 / Chapter 1.2.6.1 --- Physical properties of dietary fiber --- p.10 / Chapter 1.2.6.2 --- Physiological actions --- p.11 / Chapter 1.3 --- Food colorants --- p.13 / Chapter 1.4 --- Quality of food products --- p.14 / Chapter 1.4.1 --- Toxicity studies --- p.15 / Chapter 1.4.2 --- Stability --- p.16 / Chapter 1.4.3 --- Sensory evaluation --- p.18 / Chapter 1.5 --- Secondary metabolism --- p.20 / Chapter 1.6 --- Monascus --- p.24 / Chapter 1.6.1 --- Monascus products --- p.25 / Chapter 1.6.2 --- Monascus products as a functional food --- p.27 / Chapter 1.6.3 --- Monascus pigments --- p.27 / Chapter 1.6.4 --- Factors affect Monascus pigment production --- p.31 / Chapter 1.7 --- Purposes of study --- p.37 / Chapter Chapter 2 --- Materials and Methods --- p.38 / Chapter 2.1 --- Micro-organisms --- p.38 / Chapter 2.2 --- Maintenance of culture --- p.38 / Chapter 2.3 --- Waste Culture medium for production of pigments --- p.38 / Chapter 2.4 --- Chemical analysis of sugar cane residue broth (SCRB) --- p.39 / Chapter 2.5 --- Preparation of inoculum --- p.40 / Chapter 2.6 --- Batch culture for pigment production --- p.41 / Chapter 2.7 --- Fermentor culture for pigment production --- p.44 / Chapter 2.8 --- Cultivation of oyster mushroom --- p.46 / Chapter 2.9 --- Purification and characterization of Monascus pigments --- p.49 / Chapter 2.9.1 --- Extracellular pigments --- p.49 / Chapter 2.9.2 --- Intracellular pigments --- p.50 / Chapter 2.10 --- Toxicity test --- p.56 / Chapter 2.11 --- Sensory evaluation --- p.61 / Chapter 2.12 --- Statistical analysis --- p.62 / Chapter Chapter 3 --- Results --- p.62 / Chapter 3.1 --- Extracellular pigment of screening test --- p.63 / Chapter 3.2 --- Batch culture for pigment production by Monascus purpureus --- p.69 / Chapter 3.2.1 --- Consumption of glucose --- p.69 / Chapter 3.2.2 --- Consumption of sucrose --- p.59 / Chapter 3.2.3 --- Biomass production --- p.69 / Chapter 3.2.4 --- Residual protein content --- p.73 / Chapter 3.2.5 --- pH value of the fermented medium --- p.73 / Chapter 3.2.6 --- Production of crude extracellular pigments --- p.73 / Chapter 3.2.7 --- Production of crude intracellualr pigments --- p.75 / Chapter 3.2.8 --- Total crude pigment yield --- p.75 / Chapter 3.3 --- Fermentor --- p.77 / Chapter 3.3.1 --- "Pigmentation of control group, treatment A and B" --- p.77 / Chapter 3.3.2 --- Nutrition of the biomass from control group and treatment B of fermentor products --- p.80 / Chapter 3.4 --- Production of oyster mushroom --- p.80 / Chapter 3.4.1 --- Biological efficiency of mushroom --- p.80 / Chapter 3.4.2 --- Amino acid profile and total amino acid content of the fruitbidies --- p.87 / Chapter 3.4.3 --- Total dietary fiber content --- p.87 / Chapter 3.4.4 --- "The contents of carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen" --- p.91 / Chapter 3.4.5 --- Sensory evaluation of the mushroom --- p.91 / Chapter 3.5 --- Toxicity --- p.91 / Chapter 3.5.1 --- Acute toxicity --- p.91 / Chapter 3.5.1.1 --- Body weight --- p.95 / Chapter 3.5.1.2 --- Food consumption --- p.95 / Chapter 3.5.2 --- Subacute toxicity --- p.99 / Chapter 3.5.2.1 --- Food consumption --- p.99 / Chapter 3.5.2.2 --- Body weight --- p.99 / Chapter 3.5.2.3 --- The organ weight to body weight ratios --- p.99 / Chapter 3.5.2.4 --- The glutamate-pyruvate transaminase (GPT) and glutamate- oxaloacetate transaminase (GOT) level in blood serum --- p.103 / Chapter 3.6 --- Analysis of Monascus pigments from fermentor system by HPLC and spectrophotometry --- p.108 / Chapter 3.6.1 --- Extracellular pigment from control group --- p.108 / Chapter 3.6.2 --- Extracellular pigment from the group supplemented with 1 % MSG --- p.108 / Chapter 3.6.3 --- Intracellular pigment --- p.111 / Chapter 3.6.3.1 --- Standard of intracellular pigments (conventional pigments) --- p.111 / Chapter 3.6.4 --- Intracellular pigments extracted from SCRB group --- p.111 / Chapter 3.6.5 --- Intracellular pigment extracted from SCRB with 1 % MSG --- p.115 / Chapter 3.7 --- Qualitative and quantitative of the extracellular and intracellular pigments --- p.118 / Chapter 3.8 --- Detection of citrinin by HPLC --- p.123 / Chapter Chapter 4 --- Discussion --- p.128 / Chapter 4.1 --- Screening test --- p.128 / Chapter 4.1.1 --- Batch culture system --- p.128 / Chapter 4.2 --- Toxicity test of crude extracellular pigment --- p.129 / Chapter 4.2.1 --- Acute toxicity --- p.129 / Chapter 4.2.2 --- Subacute toxicity test --- p.130 / Chapter 4.2.3 --- Organ to body weight ratios and cytotoxicity --- p.131 / Chapter 4.3 --- The two new water soluble pigment --- p.132 / Chapter 4.4 --- Extraction and purification of Monascus pigments from fermentor system --- p.133 / Chapter 4.4.1 --- Qualitative and quantitative of the intracellular and extracellular pigments --- p.133 / Chapter 4.5 --- Nephrotoxic-citrinin --- p.134 / Chapter 4.6 --- Oyster mushroom cultivation --- p.135 / Chapter 4.6.1 --- Fruiting yield (biological efficiency) --- p.136 / Chapter 4.6.2 --- Amino acid content --- p.136 / Chapter 4.6.3 --- Total dietary fiber content --- p.137 / Conclusion --- p.139 / References --- p.141 / Appendix

A presente dissertação analisa a evolução histórica do corte mecanizado no Estado de São Paulo e os ganhos de produtividade a ele associados, no período de 1950 a 2009. Foram estudadas as alterações no perfil da mão-de-obra, os métodos de colheita, a introdução dos maquinários e as colhedoras em operação no fim da década de 2000. A produtividade do cortador de cana aumentou significativamente, no período estudado, 1950 2009, bem como das colhedoras, que tiveram grande evolução. As usinas que adotaram a colheita mecanizada integral alteraram a sazonalidade dos empregos e a capacitação dos empregados para manusear máquinas que demandam conhecimentos específicos. Dentro da lógica de racionalização dos recursos energéticos, a colheita mecanizada da cana-de-açúcar crua abre espaço para o uso da palha como recurso de defensa agrícola ou fonte complementar de energia. Conclui-se que o uso das colhedoras abriu espaço para pesquisas com a palha da cana e trouxe melhoria nas condições de trabalho para os cortadores empregados. / This dissertation examines the historical evolution of mechanized harvest in São Paulo and the productivity gains associated with it, in the period 1950 to 2009. We studied the changes in the profile of hand labor, harvesting methods, the introduction of machinery and harvesters operating in the late 2000. The productivity of cane cutters has increased significantly during the study period, 1950 - 2009, and the harvesters, who had a great evolution. The plants that have adopted the full mechanical harvesting altered the seasonality of employment and training of employees to handle machines that require specific expertise. Within the logic of rationalization of energy resources, mechanized harvesting of cane raw sugar makes room for the use of straw as a source of pesticides or complementary source of energy. We conclude that the use of harvesters paved the way for research with the straw and brought improvements in working conditions for employees cutters.

The effects of increasing periods under sugarcane monoculture (managed by preharvest burning) on soil organic matter content and related soil properties were investigated in the 0 to 10 cm layer of a sandy coastal Ochric Cambisol (Glenrosa soils) and a red Rhodic Ferralsol (Hutton soil) from the sugar belt of KwaZulu-Natal. The organic C content at both sites under undisturbed vegetation is about 48 g C kg-I. This declined exponentially with increasing years under sugarcane. For the Glenrosa site, organic C reached a new equilibrium level of about 20 g kg-I while at the Hutton soil the equivalent value was 41 g kg-I. The higher organic matter content maintained at the Hutton site was attributed mainly to clay protection of organic matter since the clay content of the Hutton soil was 61 % compared to the 18 % for the Glenrosa soil. The loss of soil organic matter under sugarcane resulted in a concomitant decline in soil microbial biomass C, microbial quotient, basal respiration, aggregate stability, arylsulphatase and acid phosphatase activity. The activities of arylsulphatase and acid phosphatase like those for concentrations of microbial biomass and organic C, were higher for the Hutton than Glenrosa soils. At the Glenrosa site, the natural OBC abundance in soils was used to calculate the loss offorest-derived, native soil C and the concomitant input of sugarcane-derived C. Sugarcane-derived C increased over time until it accounted for about 61 % of organic C in the surface 10 cm in soils that had been under sugarcane for greater than 50 years. The effects of agricultural land use (including burnt sugarcane) on organic matter content and related soil properties were compared with those under undisturbed native grassland in KwaZulu-Natal. Two separate farms situated on Oxisols were used and both contained fields with continuous long-term (>20 years) cropping histories. At site 1, soil organic C content in the surface 10 cm followed the order permanent kikuyu pasture> annual ryegrass pasture> native grassland> preharvest burnt sugarcane > maize under conventional tillage (CT). At site 2, organic C in the surface 20 cm decreased in the general order kikuyu pasture> native grassland > annual ryegrass pasture> maize under zero tillage (ZT) ~ maize (CT). Organic C, microbial biomass C, microbial quotient, basal respiration and aggregate stability were substantially greater in the surface 5 cm under maize ZT than maize CT. In the undisturbed sites (eg native grassland and kikuyu pasture) the metabolic quotient increased with depth. By contrast under maize CT and sugarcane there was no significant stratification of organic C, yet there was a sharp decrease in metabolic quotient with depth. Aggregate stability was high under both native grassland and kikuyu pasture and it remained high to 40 cm depth under the deep-rooted kikuyu pasture. Although soil organic C was similar under maize CT and sugarcane, values for microbial biomass C, microbial quotient, basal respiration and aggregate stability were lower, and those for metabolic quotient and bulk density were higher, under sugarcane. This was attributed to the fallow nature of the soil in the interrows of sugarcane fields. It was concluded that the loss of soil organic matter, microbial activity and aggregate stability is potentially problematic under maize CT and sugarcane and measures to improve organic matter status should be considered. For sugarcane, this could include green cane harvesting and the use of green manure crops in rotation. / Thesis (M.Sc.)- University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2002.