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Student Number : 8325808 - M Family Medicine thesis - Faculty of Health Sciences / Childhood protection from the sun affords lifetime protection from skin cancer. This cross sectional descriptive study was conducted on 184 mothers in 4 medical waiting rooms in Gauteng. The purpose of the study was to determine mothers’ knowledge, attitude and behaviour towards sun protection of their children. Data was collected by means of an anonymous, confidential, self-administered questionnaire. There was a significant correlation between personal behaviour of the mother and behaviour of the use of sun protection on their children. The majority of mothers purchase a sunscreen of SPF factor > 15. Knowledge often does not transfer into behaviour, with many parents still believing that a suntan is healthy. Mothers’ attitudes towards sun protection was positive. Knowing someone with skin cancer does not increase the usage of sun protection. Mothers attain their knowledge of sun protection from magazines and television. Mothers felt they would benefit from more information. Sun avoidance methods need to be taught and the perception of a suntan being healthy needs to be changed in the public media.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Psychological Sciences / Laura A. Brannon / Sun exposure, with its link to the development of skin cancer and other health issues, can be a serious health hazard. In particular, those who primarily work outdoors and are consistently exposed to the sun’s rays are at elevated risk for such health problems. Previous research efforts have focused on appealing to these outdoor workers to practice sun protection behaviors, such as using sunscreen, wearing a hat, or wearing items of clothing that reduce the amount of skin exposed to the sun’s rays. In an effort to promote such sun protection behaviors, study 1 used a 3 X 2 between-subjects design to investigate the effects of tailored messaging and the inclusion of content regarding financial consequences of skin cancer on outdoor workers’ intention to practice sun protection behaviors. Results from study 1 suggest that tailored messaging was equally as effective as targeted messaging, with both being more effective than generic messaging. This finding indicates that some degree of personalization is necessary when promoting safe sun practices to outdoor workers, but that tailoring to individuals is unnecessary. Additionally, the inclusion of financial content in messaging resulted in participants having greater intentions to practice sun protection behaviors. In study 2, managers and supervisors of outdoor workers were studied in determining the importance of consequences related to employee well-being and financial consequences for employers when it comes to encouraging sun protection behaviors in their employees. Using a four-level between-subjects intervention, it was found that managers and supervisors who received messages that emphasized the financial consequences of employee sun exposure had greater intentions to encourage sun protection behaviors in their employees than those who received a message focused solely on employee well-being. This finding indicates that employers may be most concerned with financial consequences when it comes to promoting employee health. Together, studies 1 and 2 provide insight into the most effective methods for promoting sun protection for outdoor workers.

Background: Sun exposure is strongly associated with skin cancer. Sun protection to reduce harmful effects of sun exposure, including skin cancer, is encouraged. However, sun sensitivity, a possible confounder of the association between sun exposure and sun protection, is often overlooked. Objectives: This study examined how sun exposure and sun protection behaviors among indoor workers vary between sun sensitive and less sun sensitive individuals. Methods: Diaries over 45 days (August and September of 2009) from indoor workers in the Midwest were examined. Diaries included daily sun exposure, sun protection, and sun sensitivity. Sun sensitivity was measured by determination of fair and non-fair complexion, categorized based on inability to tan and tendency to sunburn. Sun exposure was compared between fair and non-fair complexion. Total exposure (sunrise to sunset) was examined, along with exposure between 10 am and 4 pm, and long exposure between 10 am and 4 pm (at least 60 minutes). Percentages of time in the sun spent practicing sun protection were reported by study participants with fair and non-fair complexion. Logistic regression was used to determine odds ratios between fair complexion and mean sun exposure and mean sun protection times. Results: Fair complexioned individuals spent less time in the sun than non-fair complexioned individuals. In addition, fair complexioned individuals spent greater percentages of time practicing sun protection behaviors while they were in the sun. They were more likely to practice sun protection behaviors related to sunscreen application and protective clothing, notably, wearing a long-sleeved shirt.Conclusion: Fair complexioned individuals spend less time in the sun and practice more sun protective behaviors than non-fair complexioned individuals. These interrelations between sun sensitivity, sun protection and amount of sun exposure suggest that controlling for potential confounding when examining one of these factors and skin cancer may be challenging.

Introdução: Para determinação do Fator de Proteção Solar (FPS) de protetores solares, de acordo com o FDA e os protocolos internacionais, a quantidade aplicada de produto nos voluntários é de 2 mg/cm2. Diferentes estudos mostraram, entretanto, que os usuários aplicam quantidades muito inferiores a esta quando expostos ao sol. A relação entre a quantidade aplicada do fotoprotetor e o valor do FPS foi avaliada previamente em estudos anteriores, com resultados contraditórios. Objetivo: Avaliar a interferência da quantidade aplicada de dois protetores solares na determinação de seus fatores de proteção solar (FPS), de acordo com o método preconizado pelo FDA. Método: Quarenta voluntários sadios foram incluídos em dois grupos (FPS 15 e FPS 30). O fotoprotetor selecionado foi aplicado em quatro quantidades distintas (2,0 mg/cm2, 1,5 mg/cm2, 1,0 mg/cm2 e 0,5 mg/cm2). Todas as áreas foram irradiadas com Simulador solar e, após 24 horas, houve a leitura da Dose Eritematosa Mínima (DEM) da pele protegida e da pele não protegida, seguido pela determinação do FPS. Resultados: Em ambos os grupos foi observado a diminuição do valor do FPS com a redução da quantidade aplicada do protetor. As diferenças entre o FPS da área com aplicação de 2,0 mg/cm2 e as demais foram estatisticamente significantes (P<0,001). A correlação entre o FPS e a quantidade aplicada foi exponencial. Conclusão: A proteção oferecida por protetores solares é relacionada com a quantidade aplicada e, considerando a importância da fotoproteção adequada, é essencial a educação dos consumidores para a utilização dos fotoprotetores em quantidades maiores. / Background: To estimate the Sun protection Factor (SPF) for sunscreen, the amount of product applied on volunteers, according to FDA and International protocols is 2 mg/cm2. Different studies show that users apply much less product when exposed to sun. Previous studies have shown controversial results in an attempt to correlate the amount applied in relation to SPF. Objective: Evaluate the influence of applied quantity of two sunscreens in the determination of SPF, according to FDA methodology. Methods: Forty volunteers were included in two groups (SPF 15 and 30). The selected sunscreen was then applied in four different quantities (2 mg/cm2, 1.5 mg/cm2, 1.0 mg/cm2 and 0.5 mg/cm2). All areas were irradiated with the solar simulator. After 24 hours, readings of Minimal Erythemal Dose (MED) of protected and unprotected areas were provided, followed by the determination of the SPF. Results: In both groups we observed decrease of SPF number according to the amount applied. The differences between the 2 mg/cm2 area and the others were significant in both groups (p < 0.001). The correlation between specified SPF and applied amount experienced exponential growth. Conclusion: The protection provided by sunscreen is related with the amount of product applied and, concerning the importance of employing good photoprotection measures, it is essential to educate consumers to apply larger amounts of sunscreen

Introdução: Para determinação do Fator de Proteção Solar (FPS) de protetores solares, de acordo com o FDA e os protocolos internacionais, a quantidade aplicada de produto nos voluntários é de 2 mg/cm2. Diferentes estudos mostraram, entretanto, que os usuários aplicam quantidades muito inferiores a esta quando expostos ao sol. A relação entre a quantidade aplicada do fotoprotetor e o valor do FPS foi avaliada previamente em estudos anteriores, com resultados contraditórios. Objetivo: Avaliar a interferência da quantidade aplicada de dois protetores solares na determinação de seus fatores de proteção solar (FPS), de acordo com o método preconizado pelo FDA. Método: Quarenta voluntários sadios foram incluídos em dois grupos (FPS 15 e FPS 30). O fotoprotetor selecionado foi aplicado em quatro quantidades distintas (2,0 mg/cm2, 1,5 mg/cm2, 1,0 mg/cm2 e 0,5 mg/cm2). Todas as áreas foram irradiadas com Simulador solar e, após 24 horas, houve a leitura da Dose Eritematosa Mínima (DEM) da pele protegida e da pele não protegida, seguido pela determinação do FPS. Resultados: Em ambos os grupos foi observado a diminuição do valor do FPS com a redução da quantidade aplicada do protetor. As diferenças entre o FPS da área com aplicação de 2,0 mg/cm2 e as demais foram estatisticamente significantes (P<0,001). A correlação entre o FPS e a quantidade aplicada foi exponencial. Conclusão: A proteção oferecida por protetores solares é relacionada com a quantidade aplicada e, considerando a importância da fotoproteção adequada, é essencial a educação dos consumidores para a utilização dos fotoprotetores em quantidades maiores. / Background: To estimate the Sun protection Factor (SPF) for sunscreen, the amount of product applied on volunteers, according to FDA and International protocols is 2 mg/cm2. Different studies show that users apply much less product when exposed to sun. Previous studies have shown controversial results in an attempt to correlate the amount applied in relation to SPF. Objective: Evaluate the influence of applied quantity of two sunscreens in the determination of SPF, according to FDA methodology. Methods: Forty volunteers were included in two groups (SPF 15 and 30). The selected sunscreen was then applied in four different quantities (2 mg/cm2, 1.5 mg/cm2, 1.0 mg/cm2 and 0.5 mg/cm2). All areas were irradiated with the solar simulator. After 24 hours, readings of Minimal Erythemal Dose (MED) of protected and unprotected areas were provided, followed by the determination of the SPF. Results: In both groups we observed decrease of SPF number according to the amount applied. The differences between the 2 mg/cm2 area and the others were significant in both groups (p < 0.001). The correlation between specified SPF and applied amount experienced exponential growth. Conclusion: The protection provided by sunscreen is related with the amount of product applied and, concerning the importance of employing good photoprotection measures, it is essential to educate consumers to apply larger amounts of sunscreen

O glutaraldeído tem sido amplamente utilizado para reticulação química da gelatina, no entanto, substâncias de origem natural têm sido propostas como agentes reticulantes de melhor biocompatibilidade. Uma alternativa viável são os polifenois tais como os flavonois que também apresentam o potencial de sinergia com filtros solares e agentes antioxidantes utilizados em formulações cosméticas. No presente trabalho, microesferas de gelatina obtidas por polimerização em emulsão utilizando tensoativo e extração com solvente foram reticuladas com 10 mM de glutaraldeído (GTA) ou com 10 mM rutina (RUT) dissolvidos em acetona:NaOH 0,01 M. As características físico-químicas foram avaliadas por meio de: microscopia eletrônica de varredura, determinação do potencial de intumescimento por microscopia óptica comum, determinação de grupos aminos livres por reação com ácido 2,4,6- trinitrobenzenossulfônico, determinação de área superficial e porosidade por adsorção gasosa, determinação de densidade verdadeira por picnometria de gás hélio, distribuição granulometria por difração a laser, termogravimetria e análise térmica diferencial. Devido a interferentes, não foi possível mensurar a extensão de reticulação das microesferas reticuladas com RUT, porém os demais resultados obtidos sugerem que ocorreu reticulação mas em menor extensão que o GTA. A aplicabilidade em fotoproteção foi avaliada in vitro por espectrofotometria de refletância difusa em dispersões oleosas contendo benzofenona-3 e/ou octilmetoxicinamato. Os resultados observados indicaram que na concentração de 5% p/p as microesferas não reticuladas ou reticuladas com GTA ou RUT não apresentam eficácia fotoprotetora ou efeito sinérgico com os filtros químicos estudados. / Glutaraldehyde has been widely used as gelatin chemical cross-linking agent. However new natural cross-linking agents has been proposed as a more biocompatible source. Polyphenols are feasible candidates and the flavonols also exhibit potential synergism with sunscreens and antioxidant agents used in cosmetics formulations. In this study, gelatin microspheres obtained by polymerization in water-in-oil emulsion technique with tensoative and extraction with solvent were crosslinked with glutaraldehyde 10 mM (GTA) or with rutin 10 mM (RUT) solved in acetone:NaOH 0,01M. The physicochemical properties were evaluated by: scanning electron microscopy, swelling potential by optical microscopy, degree of cross-linking by 2,4,6-trinitro-benzensulfonic acid, surface area and porosity by gas adsorption, true density by hellium pycnometry, granulometry by laser light diffraction, thermogravimetry and differential scanning calorimetry. Due to interferents, was not possible to measure degree of cross-linking of gelatin microspheres crosslinked with RUT, however other findings suggest that crosslinking has occurred but in a lower degree than GTA crosslinking. Applicability in sun protection was evaluated in vitro by diffuse transmitance measurements in oily dispersion with benzophenone-3 and/or octyl methoxycinnamate. These results showed that at 5% w/w gelatin microspheres crosslinked with GTA or RUT did not exhibit sun protection efficacy or synergism with UV chemical filters that were evaluated.

O glutaraldeído tem sido amplamente utilizado para reticulação química da gelatina, no entanto, substâncias de origem natural têm sido propostas como agentes reticulantes de melhor biocompatibilidade. Uma alternativa viável são os polifenois tais como os flavonois que também apresentam o potencial de sinergia com filtros solares e agentes antioxidantes utilizados em formulações cosméticas. No presente trabalho, microesferas de gelatina obtidas por polimerização em emulsão utilizando tensoativo e extração com solvente foram reticuladas com 10 mM de glutaraldeído (GTA) ou com 10 mM rutina (RUT) dissolvidos em acetona:NaOH 0,01 M. As características físico-químicas foram avaliadas por meio de: microscopia eletrônica de varredura, determinação do potencial de intumescimento por microscopia óptica comum, determinação de grupos aminos livres por reação com ácido 2,4,6- trinitrobenzenossulfônico, determinação de área superficial e porosidade por adsorção gasosa, determinação de densidade verdadeira por picnometria de gás hélio, distribuição granulometria por difração a laser, termogravimetria e análise térmica diferencial. Devido a interferentes, não foi possível mensurar a extensão de reticulação das microesferas reticuladas com RUT, porém os demais resultados obtidos sugerem que ocorreu reticulação mas em menor extensão que o GTA. A aplicabilidade em fotoproteção foi avaliada in vitro por espectrofotometria de refletância difusa em dispersões oleosas contendo benzofenona-3 e/ou octilmetoxicinamato. Os resultados observados indicaram que na concentração de 5% p/p as microesferas não reticuladas ou reticuladas com GTA ou RUT não apresentam eficácia fotoprotetora ou efeito sinérgico com os filtros químicos estudados. / Glutaraldehyde has been widely used as gelatin chemical cross-linking agent. However new natural cross-linking agents has been proposed as a more biocompatible source. Polyphenols are feasible candidates and the flavonols also exhibit potential synergism with sunscreens and antioxidant agents used in cosmetics formulations. In this study, gelatin microspheres obtained by polymerization in water-in-oil emulsion technique with tensoative and extraction with solvent were crosslinked with glutaraldehyde 10 mM (GTA) or with rutin 10 mM (RUT) solved in acetone:NaOH 0,01M. The physicochemical properties were evaluated by: scanning electron microscopy, swelling potential by optical microscopy, degree of cross-linking by 2,4,6-trinitro-benzensulfonic acid, surface area and porosity by gas adsorption, true density by hellium pycnometry, granulometry by laser light diffraction, thermogravimetry and differential scanning calorimetry. Due to interferents, was not possible to measure degree of cross-linking of gelatin microspheres crosslinked with RUT, however other findings suggest that crosslinking has occurred but in a lower degree than GTA crosslinking. Applicability in sun protection was evaluated in vitro by diffuse transmitance measurements in oily dispersion with benzophenone-3 and/or octyl methoxycinnamate. These results showed that at 5% w/w gelatin microspheres crosslinked with GTA or RUT did not exhibit sun protection efficacy or synergism with UV chemical filters that were evaluated.

Understanding the motives for sunbathing and indoor tanning is an extremely important public health issue. Skin cancer rates have increased dramatically in recent years and UV exposure via sunbathing and utilization of sun lamps and tanning beds are considered important risk factors. Motives for sunbathing and tanning salon use have been thought to be related to appearance concerns, yet little research has examined the specific tan appearance attitudes that may contribute to use of these behaviors. Two studies were conducted with the aim of assessing distinct attitudes related to a tan appearance. In the first study items were created based on a review of the tanning literature and incorporation of constructs developed in the body image field, which were subsequently subject to exploratory factor analysis on 149 female university student sunbathers/tanning salon users.