B lymphocytes play important roles in antibody production, cytokine production, and antigen presentation to T cells. Ligation of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) on B cells stimulates cellular activation and B cell effector functions. Synergistic activation of other receptors such as CD40 or the B cell receptor (BCR) with TLR ligation further enhances B cell activation and effector functions. The tumor necrosis factor receptor associated factor (TRAF) family of proteins act as cytoplasmic signaling adaptor molecules and moderate downstream signaling from both the tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) superfamily of proteins, including CD40, and the IL-1R/TLR superfamily of proteins. To date, only TRAFs 3 and 6 have been shown to be involved in TLR signaling, with TRAF6 providing positive regulation and TRAF3 providing negative regulation of TLR signaling in B cells. Deficiency in another TRAF family member, TRAF5, has been implicated in the development of atherosclerosis, a disease developed in part due to TLR dysregulation. Here, we addressed the hypothesis that TRAF5 is a negative regulator of TLR signaling. We found that TRAF5 negatively regulated TLR-mediated cytokine and antibody production in B lymphocytes. The enhanced cytokine production seen in TLR-stimulated TRAF5 KO B cells was not attributable to altered cellular survival or proliferation, but instead more cytokine was produced on a per-cell basis, likely due to enhanced MAPK pathways after TLR ligation. Additionally, TRAF5 deficiency did not dramatically affect cytokine production in TLR-stimulated bone marrow-derived macrophages or dendritic cells, suggesting that TRAF5 plays a greater role in TLR signaling in lymphoid versus myeloid cells. TRAF5 associated with the TLR signaling proteins MyD88 and TAB2, and negatively regulated the association of TAB2 with its binding partner TRAF6. Furthermore, we manipulated B cell activation via ligation of various TLRs, CD40, and/or the BCR in order to activate the cells to effectively present antigen. Activated B cells pulsed with antigen served as an effective cellular vaccine and offered protection against both an infectious pathogen (Listeria monocytogenes) and a model of murine melanoma. We identified two candidate activation criteria for B cell vaccines (Bvacs): stimulation through the BCR and TLR7, and stimulation through CD40 and TLR4. Additionally, we found that high IL-6 production by the activated Bvac was essential for inducing optimal CD8+ T cell memory. These B cell activation protocols offer significant advantages over those currently being tested for clinical use. Understanding B cell activation through TLRs is a critical step in developing new therapies against cancer and infectious disease.

Le virus T lymphotrope humain de type 1 (HTLV-1, Human T-cell Leukemia Virus type 1) est le premier rétrovirus oncogène humain à avoir été découvert. Sa protéine régulatrice Tax est la principale responsable du processus d’immortalisation et de transformation des lymphocytes T, cibles préférentielles d’HTLV-1 in vivo, qui est associé au développement de leucémies à cellules T de l’adulte. Ce mécanisme oncogénique est dû à la capacité de Tax à interagir avec de nombreux acteurs cellulaires, détournant ainsi différentes voies qui contrôlent notamment la prolifération et la survie des cellules. L’un des événements majeurs de ce mécanisme est l’activation constitutive de la voie NF-κB induite par Tax. Notre laboratoire ainsi que d’autres équipes ont montré que l’ubiquitinylation de Tax, notamment avec des chaînes liées en K63, est nécessaire pour que Tax recrute et active le complexe IKK (IκB Kinase), en se liant à sa sous-unité régulatrice NEMO dans le cytoplasme. Par ailleurs, il a également été décrit que Tax est SUMOylée ce qui lui permet de recruter les dimères NF-κB dans des corps nucléaires pour activer la transcription de leurs gènes cibles. Toutefois, de nombreuses interrogations persistent autour de l’implication et du mode d’action de chacune de ces modifications post-traductionnelles de Tax dans l’activation de la voie NF-κB. L’importance de la SUMOylation de Tax a en effet été remise en cause par notre laboratoire, suscitant une controverse qui nous décida à réexaminer complètement son rôle dans l’activation de la voie NF-κB. Pour cela, nous avons élaboré une nouvelle stratégie basée sur l’inhibition de la machinerie de SUMOylation endogène, grâce au blocage de l’unique enzyme E2 identifiée dans ce processus, l’enzyme Ubc9. Nous avons prouvé qu’une protéine Tax non SUMOylée, mais toujours ubiquitinylée, active la transcription à partir de promoteurs dépendants de NF-κB, qu’ils soient transfectés, intégrés stablement dans la chromatine cellulaire ou endogènes, démontrant ainsi que la SUMOylation de Tax n’est pas nécessaire à l’activation de la voie NF-κB, contrairement à son ubiquitinylation. Un autre point de questionnement concerne l’association de Tax au complexe NEMO/IKKα/IKKβ, pour laquelle l’ubiquitinylation de Tax est essentielle. Nous avons étudié l’implication de l’enzyme TRAF5 dans ces mécanismes, qui semblait être une potentielle E3 ligase de Tax, celle-ci restant encore inconnue. Grâce au blocage de TRAF5, nous avons montré que cette protéine interagit avec Tax et qu’elle est nécessaire à son ubiquitinylation, notamment avec des chaînes K63, sans toutefois que son activité ligase n’entre en jeu, excluant donc son rôle en tant qu’E3 ligase de Tax. Nous avons également découvert que TRAF5 induit la formation du complexe Tax/IKKα/IKKβ, mais n’est pas impliquée dans l’association Tax/NEMO, dessinant alors un nouveau modèle pour le recrutement et l’activation du complexe IKK par Tax. Ce travail permet donc d’apporter un nouvel éclairage sur l’impact de la SUMOylation et de l’ubiquitinylation de Tax dans l’activation de la voie NF-κB et de décrypter les étapes de cet événement crucial dans le mécanisme oncogénique déclenché par la protéine Tax du virus HTLV-1. / The Human T-cell Leukemia Virus type I is the first human oncoretrovirus discovered. The regulatory Tax protein is the main responsible of the immortalization process of primary CD4+ T lymphocytes, the preferential target cells of HTLV-1 in vivo, which is associated with adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATLL), a highly aggressive malignant proliferation of CD4+ T lymphocytes. The oncogenic property of Tax is mainly due to its capacity to interact with many different cellular proteins belong to several pathways which control cell proliferation and survival. Constitutive activation of the NF-κB pathway induced by Tax plays a crucial role in this oncogenic mechanism. Our laboratory, and others, demonstrated that Tax ubiquitination, notably with K63-linked ubiquitin (Ub) chains, is required for the activation of the cytoplasmic IκB kinase (IKK) complex by directly interacting with the regulatory subunit NEMO. Moreover, in previous studies, we and others describe that Tax is also conjugated to either SUMO-1 or SUMO-2/3 molecules which facilitates its interaction with the NF-κB dimers in particular structures named Tax nuclear bodies, inducing promoter activation of target genes in the nucleus. However, many questions remain concerning the exact role of each Tax post-translational modification in the NF-κB pathway activation process. In the laboratory, we recently reconsidered the importance of Tax SUMOylation, provoking a controversy in our field. So, we decided to reexamine the role of this modification on NF-κB activation. To do this, we designed a novel strategy based on the inhibition of the endogenous SUMOylation machinery by blocking or silencing Ubc9, the unique E2-conjugating enzyme involves in this process. We found that an ubiquitinated but not SUMOylated Tax protein is still able to activate a transfected, an integrated or an endogenous NF-κB promoters, demonstrating that Tax SUMOylation is not required for Tax induced NF-κB pathway activation contrary to its ubiquitination. Another interrogation concerning the formation of the Tax/NEMO/IKKα/IKKβ complex, in which Tax ubiquitination is critical. We studied the role of TRAF5 in these mechanisms because this enzyme could be a potential Ub E3-ligase of Tax, which remains unknown. Thanks to the blockage of TRAF5, we showed that this protein interacts with Tax and that TRAF5 is necessary for Tax ubiquitination, notably with K63-linked Ub chains. However, TRAF5 is not the direct E3-ligase of Tax since we demonstrated that its ligase activity is not involved in Tax conjugation to ubiquitin. We also discovered that TRAF5 induces the formation of the Tax/ IKKα/IKKβ complex but not the association between Tax and NEMO, showing a new model for the recruitment and the activation of the IKK complex by Tax. In conclusion, our results led us to propose a new light on the impact of Tax SUMOylation and ubiquitination in the NF-κB pathway activation and to figure out the different steps of this process, which is crucial for the oncogenic mechanism induced by the HTLV-1 Tax protein.

Le virus T lymphotrope humain de type 1 (HTLV-1, Human T-cell Leukemia Virus type 1) est le premier rétrovirus oncogène humain à avoir été découvert. Sa protéine régulatrice Tax est la principale responsable du processus d’immortalisation et de transformation des lymphocytes T, cibles préférentielles d’HTLV-1 in vivo, qui est associé au développement de leucémies à cellules T de l’adulte. Ce mécanisme oncogénique est dû à la capacité de Tax à interagir avec de nombreux acteurs cellulaires, détournant ainsi différentes voies qui contrôlent notamment la prolifération et la survie des cellules. L’un des événements majeurs de ce mécanisme est l’activation constitutive de la voie NF-κB induite par Tax. Notre laboratoire ainsi que d’autres équipes ont montré que l’ubiquitinylation de Tax, notamment avec des chaînes liées en K63, est nécessaire pour que Tax recrute et active le complexe IKK (IκB Kinase), en se liant à sa sous-unité régulatrice NEMO dans le cytoplasme. Par ailleurs, il a également été décrit que Tax est SUMOylée ce qui lui permet de recruter les dimères NF-κB dans des corps nucléaires pour activer la transcription de leurs gènes cibles. Toutefois, de nombreuses interrogations persistent autour de l’implication et du mode d’action de chacune de ces modifications post-traductionnelles de Tax dans l’activation de la voie NF-κB. L’importance de la SUMOylation de Tax a en effet été remise en cause par notre laboratoire, suscitant une controverse qui nous décida à réexaminer complètement son rôle dans l’activation de la voie NF-κB. Pour cela, nous avons élaboré une nouvelle stratégie basée sur l’inhibition de la machinerie de SUMOylation endogène, grâce au blocage de l’unique enzyme E2 identifiée dans ce processus, l’enzyme Ubc9. Nous avons prouvé qu’une protéine Tax non SUMOylée, mais toujours ubiquitinylée, active la transcription à partir de promoteurs dépendants de NF-κB, qu’ils soient transfectés, intégrés stablement dans la chromatine cellulaire ou endogènes, démontrant ainsi que la SUMOylation de Tax n’est pas nécessaire à l’activation de la voie NF-κB, contrairement à son ubiquitinylation. Un autre point de questionnement concerne l’association de Tax au complexe NEMO/IKKα/IKKβ, pour laquelle l’ubiquitinylation de Tax est essentielle. Nous avons étudié l’implication de l’enzyme TRAF5 dans ces mécanismes, qui semblait être une potentielle E3 ligase de Tax, celle-ci restant encore inconnue. Grâce au blocage de TRAF5, nous avons montré que cette protéine interagit avec Tax et qu’elle est nécessaire à son ubiquitinylation, notamment avec des chaînes K63, sans toutefois que son activité ligase n’entre en jeu, excluant donc son rôle en tant qu’E3 ligase de Tax. Nous avons également découvert que TRAF5 induit la formation du complexe Tax/IKKα/IKKβ, mais n’est pas impliquée dans l’association Tax/NEMO, dessinant alors un nouveau modèle pour le recrutement et l’activation du complexe IKK par Tax. Ce travail permet donc d’apporter un nouvel éclairage sur l’impact de la SUMOylation et de l’ubiquitinylation de Tax dans l’activation de la voie NF-κB et de décrypter les étapes de cet événement crucial dans le mécanisme oncogénique déclenché par la protéine Tax du virus HTLV-1. / The Human T-cell Leukemia Virus type I is the first human oncoretrovirus discovered. The regulatory Tax protein is the main responsible of the immortalization process of primary CD4+ T lymphocytes, the preferential target cells of HTLV-1 in vivo, which is associated with adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATLL), a highly aggressive malignant proliferation of CD4+ T lymphocytes. The oncogenic property of Tax is mainly due to its capacity to interact with many different cellular proteins belong to several pathways which control cell proliferation and survival. Constitutive activation of the NF-κB pathway induced by Tax plays a crucial role in this oncogenic mechanism. Our laboratory, and others, demonstrated that Tax ubiquitination, notably with K63-linked ubiquitin (Ub) chains, is required for the activation of the cytoplasmic IκB kinase (IKK) complex by directly interacting with the regulatory subunit NEMO. Moreover, in previous studies, we and others describe that Tax is also conjugated to either SUMO-1 or SUMO-2/3 molecules which facilitates its interaction with the NF-κB dimers in particular structures named Tax nuclear bodies, inducing promoter activation of target genes in the nucleus. However, many questions remain concerning the exact role of each Tax post-translational modification in the NF-κB pathway activation process. In the laboratory, we recently reconsidered the importance of Tax SUMOylation, provoking a controversy in our field. So, we decided to reexamine the role of this modification on NF-κB activation. To do this, we designed a novel strategy based on the inhibition of the endogenous SUMOylation machinery by blocking or silencing Ubc9, the unique E2-conjugating enzyme involves in this process. We found that an ubiquitinated but not SUMOylated Tax protein is still able to activate a transfected, an integrated or an endogenous NF-κB promoters, demonstrating that Tax SUMOylation is not required for Tax induced NF-κB pathway activation contrary to its ubiquitination. Another interrogation concerning the formation of the Tax/NEMO/IKKα/IKKβ complex, in which Tax ubiquitination is critical. We studied the role of TRAF5 in these mechanisms because this enzyme could be a potential Ub E3-ligase of Tax, which remains unknown. Thanks to the blockage of TRAF5, we showed that this protein interacts with Tax and that TRAF5 is necessary for Tax ubiquitination, notably with K63-linked Ub chains. However, TRAF5 is not the direct E3-ligase of Tax since we demonstrated that its ligase activity is not involved in Tax conjugation to ubiquitin. We also discovered that TRAF5 induces the formation of the Tax/ IKKα/IKKβ complex but not the association between Tax and NEMO, showing a new model for the recruitment and the activation of the IKK complex by Tax. In conclusion, our results led us to propose a new light on the impact of Tax SUMOylation and ubiquitination in the NF-κB pathway activation and to figure out the different steps of this process, which is crucial for the oncogenic mechanism induced by the HTLV-1 Tax protein.

Le virus T lymphotrope humain de type 1 (HTLV-1, Human T-cell Leukemia Virus type 1) est le premier rétrovirus oncogène humain à avoir été découvert. Sa protéine régulatrice Tax est la principale responsable du processus d’immortalisation et de transformation des lymphocytes T, cibles préférentielles d’HTLV-1 in vivo, qui est associé au développement de leucémies à cellules T de l’adulte. Ce mécanisme oncogénique est dû à la capacité de Tax à interagir avec de nombreux acteurs cellulaires, détournant ainsi différentes voies qui contrôlent notamment la prolifération et la survie des cellules. L’un des événements majeurs de ce mécanisme est l’activation constitutive de la voie NF-κB induite par Tax. Notre laboratoire ainsi que d’autres équipes ont montré que l’ubiquitinylation de Tax, notamment avec des chaînes liées en K63, est nécessaire pour que Tax recrute et active le complexe IKK (IκB Kinase), en se liant à sa sous-unité régulatrice NEMO dans le cytoplasme. Par ailleurs, il a également été décrit que Tax est SUMOylée ce qui lui permet de recruter les dimères NF-κB dans des corps nucléaires pour activer la transcription de leurs gènes cibles. Toutefois, de nombreuses interrogations persistent autour de l’implication et du mode d’action de chacune de ces modifications post-traductionnelles de Tax dans l’activation de la voie NF-κB. L’importance de la SUMOylation de Tax a en effet été remise en cause par notre laboratoire, suscitant une controverse qui nous décida à réexaminer complètement son rôle dans l’activation de la voie NF-κB. Pour cela, nous avons élaboré une nouvelle stratégie basée sur l’inhibition de la machinerie de SUMOylation endogène, grâce au blocage de l’unique enzyme E2 identifiée dans ce processus, l’enzyme Ubc9. Nous avons prouvé qu’une protéine Tax non SUMOylée, mais toujours ubiquitinylée, active la transcription à partir de promoteurs dépendants de NF-κB, qu’ils soient transfectés, intégrés stablement dans la chromatine cellulaire ou endogènes, démontrant ainsi que la SUMOylation de Tax n’est pas nécessaire à l’activation de la voie NF-κB, contrairement à son ubiquitinylation. Un autre point de questionnement concerne l’association de Tax au complexe NEMO/IKKα/IKKβ, pour laquelle l’ubiquitinylation de Tax est essentielle. Nous avons étudié l’implication de l’enzyme TRAF5 dans ces mécanismes, qui semblait être une potentielle E3 ligase de Tax, celle-ci restant encore inconnue. Grâce au blocage de TRAF5, nous avons montré que cette protéine interagit avec Tax et qu’elle est nécessaire à son ubiquitinylation, notamment avec des chaînes K63, sans toutefois que son activité ligase n’entre en jeu, excluant donc son rôle en tant qu’E3 ligase de Tax. Nous avons également découvert que TRAF5 induit la formation du complexe Tax/IKKα/IKKβ, mais n’est pas impliquée dans l’association Tax/NEMO, dessinant alors un nouveau modèle pour le recrutement et l’activation du complexe IKK par Tax. Ce travail permet donc d’apporter un nouvel éclairage sur l’impact de la SUMOylation et de l’ubiquitinylation de Tax dans l’activation de la voie NF-κB et de décrypter les étapes de cet événement crucial dans le mécanisme oncogénique déclenché par la protéine Tax du virus HTLV-1. / The Human T-cell Leukemia Virus type I is the first human oncoretrovirus discovered. The regulatory Tax protein is the main responsible of the immortalization process of primary CD4+ T lymphocytes, the preferential target cells of HTLV-1 in vivo, which is associated with adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATLL), a highly aggressive malignant proliferation of CD4+ T lymphocytes. The oncogenic property of Tax is mainly due to its capacity to interact with many different cellular proteins belong to several pathways which control cell proliferation and survival. Constitutive activation of the NF-κB pathway induced by Tax plays a crucial role in this oncogenic mechanism. Our laboratory, and others, demonstrated that Tax ubiquitination, notably with K63-linked ubiquitin (Ub) chains, is required for the activation of the cytoplasmic IκB kinase (IKK) complex by directly interacting with the regulatory subunit NEMO. Moreover, in previous studies, we and others describe that Tax is also conjugated to either SUMO-1 or SUMO-2/3 molecules which facilitates its interaction with the NF-κB dimers in particular structures named Tax nuclear bodies, inducing promoter activation of target genes in the nucleus. However, many questions remain concerning the exact role of each Tax post-translational modification in the NF-κB pathway activation process. In the laboratory, we recently reconsidered the importance of Tax SUMOylation, provoking a controversy in our field. So, we decided to reexamine the role of this modification on NF-κB activation. To do this, we designed a novel strategy based on the inhibition of the endogenous SUMOylation machinery by blocking or silencing Ubc9, the unique E2-conjugating enzyme involves in this process. We found that an ubiquitinated but not SUMOylated Tax protein is still able to activate a transfected, an integrated or an endogenous NF-κB promoters, demonstrating that Tax SUMOylation is not required for Tax induced NF-κB pathway activation contrary to its ubiquitination. Another interrogation concerning the formation of the Tax/NEMO/IKKα/IKKβ complex, in which Tax ubiquitination is critical. We studied the role of TRAF5 in these mechanisms because this enzyme could be a potential Ub E3-ligase of Tax, which remains unknown. Thanks to the blockage of TRAF5, we showed that this protein interacts with Tax and that TRAF5 is necessary for Tax ubiquitination, notably with K63-linked Ub chains. However, TRAF5 is not the direct E3-ligase of Tax since we demonstrated that its ligase activity is not involved in Tax conjugation to ubiquitin. We also discovered that TRAF5 induces the formation of the Tax/ IKKα/IKKβ complex but not the association between Tax and NEMO, showing a new model for the recruitment and the activation of the IKK complex by Tax. In conclusion, our results led us to propose a new light on the impact of Tax SUMOylation and ubiquitination in the NF-κB pathway activation and to figure out the different steps of this process, which is crucial for the oncogenic mechanism induced by the HTLV-1 Tax protein.

No description available.

The tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor-associated factors (TRAFs) were initially discovered as proteins that inducibly interact with the intracellular region of TNF receptors (TNFRs). Because the TNFRs lack intrinsic catalytic activity, the TRAFs are hypothesized to orchestrate signaling activation downstream of the TNFR superfamily, however their mechanism of activation remains unclear (Inoue et al., 2000; Bishop, 2004). Originally, the TRAFs were compared to the signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT) protein family, due to their sequence homology, and the presence of multiple RING- and zinc-finger domains, suggesting that their function may be to regulate transcriptional activity (Rothe et al., 1994; Hu et al., 1994; Sato et al. 1995; Cheng et al., 1995). However, subsequent research focused predominantly on their cytoplasmic functions, and more recently on their function as E3 ubiquitin ligases (Pineda et al., 2007). In my research, I analyzed the subcellular localizations of the TRAFs following CD40 ligand (CD40L)-stimulation, and found that TRAF2 and 3 rapidly translocate into the nucleus of primary neurons and Neuro2a cells. Interestingly, similar analysis conducted in pre-B lymphocytes (Daudi cells) revealed a different response to CD40L-stimulation, with TRAF2 and 3 being rapidly degraded within 5-minutes of stimulation. These findings are significant because they demonstrate for the first time that the TRAFs translocate into the nucleus and suggest that they may function within the nucleus in a cell-specific manner. I next analyzed the ability of TRAF2 and 3 to bind to DNA, and found that they both bind to chromatin and the NF-kappaB consensus element in Neuro2a cells, following CD40L-stimulation. Similar analyses of the chromatin binding of TRAF2 and 3 in Daudi cells revealed that they were rapidly degraded, similar to the results from my analysis of their subcellular localization. These findings show for the first time that the TRAFs interact with DNA, and therefore support the hypothesis that the TRAFs may function within the nucleus as transcriptional regulators. Finally, I analyzed the ability of the TRAFs to regulate transcriptional activity by luciferase assay. Previous studies showed that overexpression of TRAF2 and 6 could induce NF-kappaB transcriptional activity; however researchers have not been able to determine the mechanism by which they do so. In my studies, I found that every TRAF can directly regulate transcriptional activity either as co-activators or co-repressors of transcription, in a cell- and target protein-specific manner. Additionally, I found that TRAF2 can act as a transcriptional activator, and that its ability to regulate transcription is largely dependent upon the presence of its RING-finger domain. In conclusion, these studies have revealed an entirely novel function for the TRAFs as immediate-early transcriptional regulators. Future research into the genes that are regulated by the specific TRAF complexes will further elucidate how the TRAFs regulate TNFR signaling, as well as whether dysfunctions in TRAF signaling may be associated with known disorders. If specific TRAF complexes are found to regulate specific genes, then pharmacological targeting of the individual TRAF complexes may allow for the highly specific inhibition of signaling events downstream of the TNFRs, without compromising overall receptor signaling, transcription factor pathways, or cellular systems.