Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is an aggressive subtype of liver cancer with a poor prognosis. Currently, prognosis for HCC patients remains poor as few therapies are available. The clinical need for more effective HCC treatments remains unmet partially because HCC is genetically heterogeneous and HCC driver genes amenable to targeted therapy are largely unknown. Mutations in the TP53 gene are found in ~30% of HCC patients and confer poor prognosis to patients. Identifying genes whose depletion can inhibit HCC growth, and determining the mechanisms involved, will aid the development of targeted therapies for HCC patients. Therefore, the first half of this thesis focuses on identifying genes that are required for cell growth in HCC independent of p53 status. We performed a kinome-wide CRISPR screen to identify genes required for cell growth in three HCC cell lines: HepG2 (p53 wild-type), Huh7 (p53-mutant) and Hep3B (p53-null) cells. The kinome screen identified 31 genes that were required for cell growth in 3 HCC cell lines independent of TP53 status. Among the 31 genes, 8 genes were highly expressed in HCC compared to normal tissue and increased expression was associated with poor survival in HCC patients. We focused on TRRAP, a co-factor for histone acetyltransferases. TRRAP function has not been previously characterized in HCC. CRISPR/Cas9 mediated depletion of TRRAP reduced cell growth and colony formation in all three cell lines. Moreover, depletion of TRRAP reduced its histone acetyltransferase co-factors KAT2A and KAT5 at the protein level with no change at the mRNA level. I found that depletion of KAT5, but not KAT2A, reduced cell growth. Notably, inhibition of proteasome- and lysosome-mediated degradation failed to rescue protein levels of KAT2A and KAT5 in the absence of TRRAP. Moreover, tumor initiation in an HCC mouse model failed after CRISPR/Cas9 depletion of TRRAP due to clearance via macrophages and HCC cells depleted of TRRAP and KAT5 failed to grow as subcutaneous xenografts in vivo. RNA-seq and bioinformatic analysis of HCC patient samples revealed that TRRAP positively regulates expression of genes that are involved in mitotic progression. In HCC, this subset of genes is clinically relevant as they are overexpressed compared to normal tissue and high expression confers poor survival to patients. I identified TOP2A as one of the mitotic gene targets of the TRRAP/KAT5 complex whose inhibition greatly reduces proliferation of HCC cells. Given that this was the first time the TRRAP/KAT5 complex has been identified as a therapeutic target in HCC, the second half of this thesis focuses on identifying the mechanism via which depletion of this complex inhibits proliferation of HCC cells. I discovered that depletion of TRRAP, KAT5 and TOP2A reduced proliferation of HCC cells by inducing senescence. Typically, senescence is an irreversible state of cell cycle arrest at G1 that is due to activation of p53/p21 expression, phosphorylation of RB, and DNA damage. Surprisingly, induction of senescence after loss of TRRAP, KAT5 and TOP2A arrested cells during G2/M and senescence was independent of p53, p21, RB and DNA damage. In summary, this thesis identifies TRRAP as a potential oncogene in HCC. I identified a network of genes regulated by TRRAP and its-cofactor KAT5 that promote mitotic progression. Moreover, I demonstrated that disruption of TRRAP/KAT5 and its downstream target gene TOP2A result in senescence of HCC cells independent of p53 status. Taken together, this work suggests that targeting the TRRAP/KAT5 complex and its network of target genes is a potential therapeutic strategy for HCC patients.

Les cellules souches embryonnaires et adultes sont strictement contrôlées et régulées par différents mécanismes comme l’auto-renouvellement, la différentiation et l’apoptose. Les enzymes impliquées dans la modification des histones et les différents statuts de la chromatine seraient responsables de la mise en place, du maintien et de la propagation des différents profils d’expression des gènes mais le mécanisme sous-jacent reste néanmoins mal compris. Dans nos études, nous avons identifié le rôle de Trrap, un cofacteur des histones acétyltransférases dans le maintien de l’auto-renouvellement des cellules souches embryonnaires et adultes. La perte de la moelle épinière et une mortalité croissante sont survenues suite à la délétion conditionnelle du gène Trrap chez la souris. Ceci est dû à la perte des cellules hématopoïétiques progénitrices ainsi que des cellules hématopoïétiques souches par un mécanisme cellulaire autonome. L’analyse des cellules progénitrices, purifiées, de la moelle épinière à permis de révéler que ces anomalies sont associées à l’induction de l’apoptose indépendante de p53 ainsi qu’à la dérégulation des facteurs de transcription Myc. De plus, la délétion conditionnelle de Trrap dans les cellules souches embryonnaires induit la différentiation due au rôle important que Trrap joue dans la régulation du couplage de la méthylation de l’histone H3 aux lysines K4 et K27 appelées « domaines bivalents », le maintien du statut hyperdynamique de la chromatine et la régulation des gènes spécifiques à l’auto-renouvellement. Ceci est cohérent avec l’essentiel rôle de Trrap impliqué dans le mécanisme qui restreint l’induction de l’apoptose ou de la différentiation, ceci selon le type de cellules souches, et favorise le maintien de l’auto-renouvellement. Ces études ont permis d’identifier les différents rôles essentiels que Trrap joue dans le mécanisme qui permet le maintien des cellules souches embryonnaires et adultes ce qui soulève la possibilité que Trrap et les modifications des histones qui contrôlent l’auto-renouvellement pourraient être importants pour le développement et le maintien des cellules souches cancéreuses. Une meilleure compréhension du mécanisme commun qui implique Trrap et les modifications des histones contrôlant les éléments essentiels des cellules souches normales et cancéreuses s’avèrerait essentiel et très bénéfique pour les stratégies de thérapies épigénétiques qui ont pour but d’éradiquer les cellules souches cancéreuses / Embryonic and adult stem cells are tightly controlled and regulated by self-renewal, differentiation and apoptosis. Histone modifiers and chromatin states are believed to govern establishment, maintenance, and propagation of distinct patterns of gene expression in stem cells, however the underlying mechanism remains poorly understood. In our studies, we identified a role for the histone acetyltransferase cofactor Trrap in the maintenance of embryonic stem cells and hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells. Conditional deletion of the Trrap gene in mice resulted in ablation of bone marrow and increased lethality. This was due to the depletion of early hematopoietic progenitors, including hematopoietic stem cells, via a cell-autonomous mechanism. Analysis of purified bone marrow progenitors revealed that these defects are associated with induction of p53-independent apoptosis and deregulation of Myc transcription factors. Moreover, conditional deletion of Trrap in embryonic stem cells was found to results in unscheduled differentiation. This was due to the essential role of Trrap in coupling of H3K4 and H3K27 methylation ("bivalent-domains"), the maintenance of hyperdynamic chromatin state and regulation of the stemness genes, consistent with the essential function of Trrap in the mechanism that restricts apoptosis or differentiation depending on stem cell type and promotes the maintenance of self-renewal. Together, these studies have identified critical roles for Trrap in the mechanism that maintains embryonic and hematopoietic stem cells and raise the possibility that Trrap and histone modifications controlling self-renewal may be important for the development and maintenance of cancer stem cells. Better understanding of a common molecular mechanism involving HATs and histone modifications that controls key features of normal and cancer stem cells may prove highly beneficial for epigenetics-based therapeutic strategies aiming to eradicate cancer stem cells

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