<p>Lack of knowledge about stroke in general and specific knowledge of the risk factors, signs, and symptoms of stroke results in the late presentation of patients at hospital. The aim of this study was to determine the knowledge of stroke among hypertensive patients in the Tanga region of Tanzania. To investigate this, a cross-sectional survey using a quantitative research design was used.</p>

Bagamoyo area in Tanzania is a place full of potential for development and big projects are about to start. A few kilometres outside of Bagamoyo town, the small place Makurunge is situated. Since Makurunge is located close to a big sugar cane project that is about to start and it is included in a development plan of Bagamoyo township, it will possibly be facing many changes in a near future. This thesis aims to explore the local livelihoods in Makurunge with focus on the local population’s perceptions concerning their present lives, visions and constraints. These thoughts are discussed together with the possible future impacts from the development projects in the area. To explore the objectives with this thesis a qualitative field study in Tanzania has been done. Semi-structured interviews, informal talks and focus group discussions have been done with local people in Makurunge. Interviews with people working at the district office, for the government and some NGOs in the area have been held. The results show that the livelihood situation in Makurunge is difficult and people want to improve their lives. Many people are small-scale farmers or charcoal producers, dependent of natural resources and their physical strength. Some also have small businesses and the economical situation is very hard for everyone. Bad roads, low education and lack of job opportunities together with limited access to modern tools, have been identified as obstacles for them to pursue good livelihoods. The presumed changes from the developments in the area could possibly contribute to a more active community with more money flow and an improved infrastructure. Together with empowerment and greater knowledge the people could hopefully get a more sustainable livelihood situation in the future.

Habitat loss and fragmentation is a crisis affecting wildlife worldwide. In Tanzania, East Africa, a dramatic and recent (<80 years) expansion in human settlement and agriculture threatens to reduce gene flow among protected areas for many species of large mammals. Wildlife linkages can mitigate population isolation, but linkage designs lacking empirical justification may be controversial and ineffective. Connectivity conservation requires an understanding of how biogeographic factors shaped gene flow prior to habitat loss or fragmentation, however the history of interaction among populations is rarely known. The goal of my study was to provide context for connectivity conservation in central and southern Tanzania by identifying landscape features that have shaped gene flow for three ungulate species with different dispersal capabilities. I investigated historical patterns of connectivity for Maasai giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis tippelskirchi), impala (Aepyceros melampus), and eland (Tragelaphus oryx) by estimating genetic structure among four to eight protected areas per species. Genetic structure changes very slowly among large populations and thus is likely to reflect historical processes instead of recent anthropogenic influences. I collected noninvasive DNA samples and generated microsatellite genotypes at 8 to 15 loci per species, then estimated genetic diversity metrics (allelic richness, AR, and expected heterozygosity, H[subscript E]) for each population (defined by reserve). I also calculated genetic distance (F[subscript ST] and Nei's unbiased genetic distance, D[subscript hat]) and an estimate of gene flow (Nm) between all population pairs for each species. To elucidate the possible causes of genetic structure between these populations, I tested for isolation by distance and isolation by resistance based on a suite of biogeographic factors hypothesized to affect gene flow. To do this, I created GIS-based resistance surfaces that assigned different costs of movement to landscape features. I created one or more resistance surfaces for each hypothesis of landscape effect. I used circuit theory to estimate the cumulative resistance between each pair of reserves for each weighting scheme, and then performed Mantel tests to calculate the correlation between these resistances and the observed population pairwise genetic distances (D[subscript hat]). I chose the optimal resistance model for each species as the model that was most highly correlated with observed genetic patterns. To verify that the correlation of resistance models with genetic distance was not an artefact of geographic distance, I performed partial Mantel tests to calculate correlation while controlling for the effect of geographic distance. Finally, I compared historical gene flow patterns to the distribution of contemporary human activity to predict areas that are at risk of a loss of connectivity. Indices of genetic diversity were moderate for all three species and comparable to previously reported values for other savannah ungulates. Diversity (both H[subscript E] and A[subscript R]) was highest in eland and lowest in giraffe for these populations, and was not consistently correlated with reserve size as has been reported for other species in East Africa. Although patterns in genetic distance were broadly similar across all three species there were also striking differences in connectivity, highlighting the importance of cross-species comparisons in connectivity conservation. At this scale, resistance models based on slope strongly predicted population structure for all three species; distance to water was also highly correlated with genetic distance in eland. For all three species, the greatest genetic distances occurred between populations separated by the Eastern Arc Mountains, suggesting that the topography of this area has long acted as a barrier to gene flow, but this effect is present in varying degrees for each species. I observed high levels of historical gene flow between centrally located populations (Ruaha National Park and Rungwa Game Reserve) and those in the southwest (Katavi National Park and Rukwa Game Reserve). Although human settlement in this area has been low relative to other areas, the connection between the Katavi/Rukwa and Ruaha ecosystems may be threatened by increased human activity and warrants conservation. High levels of historical gene flow were also seen between reserves in the northeast (Tarangire National Park, Swagaswaga Game Reserve) and the central and southwest populations. These connections appear highly threatened due to current land use practices, and may have already suffered a loss of gene flow. Field surveys in the lands surrounding the northeastern reserves are needed to quantify current levels of connectivity and determine whether corridors could be established to maintain or restore gene flow with other reserves. / Graduation date: 2012

Introduction: Burn injuries are a major health problem and a leading problem of childhood mortality, particularly in developing countries. The most common complication of burn injuries is infections in the wound. Purpose: The purpose of the study was to investigate what advice is given to parents concerning precautions to avoid burns and related infections. Furthermore, the purpose is to investigate what nurses do to prevent infections in the wounds that might appear after burns at the ward. Method: A qualitative, explorative study was conducted. Semi- structured interviews were conducted among seven nurses, working at the burn unit in Dar es Salaam. A qualitative content analysis was used for data analysis. Result: Four categories of advice which nurses gave to parents were emerged from the data - Importance of family as well as community resources, Aseptic technique and regulation at the ward to prevent infections, Thoughtful counselling and Looking into a bright future - burns can be prevented. The advices given to parents from nurses are to pay attention to their child and to not leave the child alone. To prevent infections nurses work aseptic at the ward, and they give education to mothers and children about hygiene and nutrition. Conclusion: Nurses put a lot of effort in counselling in order to prevent future burns and their related complications. The limited economic resources of the families, is one of the main reasons to cause burns and at the same time affecting the care negatively. The nurses working at the burn unit emphasized the importance of education / Inledning: Brännskador är ett förödande hälsoproblem och en ledande orsak till barnadödlighet, framför allt i utvecklingsländer. Den vanligaste komplikationen tillbrännskador är sårinfektion. Syfte: Syftet var att undersöka vilka råd som ges till föräldrar för att undvika brännskador och relaterade infektioner. Vidare syftade studien till att undersöka vad sjuksköterskor gör för att förhindra att infektion uppstår i brännskadesåren. Metod: En kvalitativ, explorativ studie gjordes. Sju semi-strukturerade intervjuer utfördes med sjuksköterskor i Dar es Salaam. För att analysera data användes kvalitativ innehållsanalys. Resultat: Fyra kategorier som beskrev vilka råd sjuksköterskor gav till föräldrar togs fram vid dataanalysen: Betydelsen av familjens samt gemensamma resurser, Aseptisk teknik och riktlinjer på avdelningen för att förhindra infektion, Anpassad rådgivning och Framtiden är ljus – brännskador kan förebyggas. De råd som ges är att vara uppmärksamma på sina barn och att inte lämna barnen ensamma. För att förhindra infektioner arbetar sjuksköterskor aseptiskt. De ger även utbildning till föräldrar och barn angående nutrition och hygien. Slutsats: Sjuksköterskor lägger stor vikt vid rådgivning för att förhindra framtida brännskador och relaterade komplikationer. Familjernas begränsade ekonomiska resurser är en av de viktigaste orsakerna till att brännskador uppstår, dessa begränsade resurser påverkar dessutom kvaliteten på vården. Sjuksköterskorna framhöll hur viktigt det är med utbildning.

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Beginning with the assumption that HIV and AIDS is a “gendered pandemic,” and that the church is central to the lives of many people in Africa, particularly Tanzania, this study sought to assess the HIV and AIDS intervention programmes of the church. The study used the HIV and AIDS programmes and policy of the Northern Diocese of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Tanzania as a case study, and the central question of this study was: “To what extent have the theological beliefs which under-gird the HIV and AIDS policy and programmes encouraged these programmes to adequately respond to the gender challenges posed by the pandemic?” The hypothesis of this study was that the HIV and AIDS programmes of the ELCT Northern Diocese have not responded adequately to the gender challenges posed by the pandemic among its church members, and that therefore a more gender-sensitive theological response is needed. As such the objectives of this study were: To describe and analyze the HIV and AIDS policy and programmes of the ELCT Northern Diocese; To investigate whether the HIV and AIDS programmes are gender sensitive; To examine to what extent the theological beliefs under-girding the HIV and AIDS programmes and policy encourage gender sensitivity in these programmes; To develop theologies that encourage a more gender sensitive response to HIV and AIDS. The data for the study was collected through in-depth interviews, participant observation, case studies and documentary sources such as primary health education programme annual reports and policy document. From sketching the context of the HIV and AIDS pandemic in Tanzania in general, the study proceeds to describe and analyze the prevailing HIV and AIDS programmes of the ELCT Northern Diocese, which range from HIV and AIDS education awareness, to the provision of medical care, physical and spiritual care. It then assesses the theological beliefs underpinning the diocese‟s HIV and AIDS programmes/policy, and examines how the Lutheran Church understands and involves itself in the mission of God, pointing to a way forward in this regard by underlining Luther‟s practical response to the bubonic plague in relation to HIV and AIDS programmes. Three theoretical frameworks of analysis were used to assist in the analysis of the data collected. These were: a) the gendered conceptual framework for assessing HIV and AIDS interventions as pioneered by Geeta Rao Gupta; b) Luther‟s theologies of suffering, healing and gender; c) African feminist cultural hermeneutics as pioneered by Musimbi Kanyoro. The study concludes that as long as the church does not consider the gender nature of HIV and AIDS, its efforts to overcome the pandemic will bear little fruit. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2011.

The majority of farmers in Tanzania have not yet adopted modern maize varieties and still cultivate landraces and open pollinated varieties (OPVs) with low production potential and susceptible to diseases like maize streak virus (MSV), grey leaf spot (GLS) and northern corn leaf blight (NLB). The NLB disease is among the major causes of low yield and has been reported in all 21 maize growing regions in Tanzania. Breeding for host plant resistance with high yielding potential and involving the community in the breeding process is expected to address the problem of low yield, NLB disease susceptibility and low rate of F1 hybrid adoption. Therefore, the study was conducted to obtain additional sources of resistance to NLB disease, high yielding cultivars with community acceptable traits adapted to Tanzanian conditions. The main objective was to contribute to increased maize productivity in the western zone of Tanzania. The specific objectives of this study were therefore to : 1) investigate maize production limiting factors for smallholder farmers in western Tanzania, 2) identify farmers and stockist perceptions, opinions and maize variety selection criteria in western Tanzania, 3) establish NLB disease status in farmers’ fields of western Tanzania, 4) determine the genetic relationships among landraces and assess maize landraces as sources of breeding materials, 5) determine the combining ability and heterosis for NLB disease resistance of eleven maize inbred lines adapted to Tanzanian conditions, and 6) determine the gene action and inheritance of resistance to NLB disease in five maize inbred lines adapted to Tanzanian conditions. The study was conducted from 2008-2011 in three diverse environments which represent all the maize growing regions in the country The participatory rural appraisal (PRA) was conducted in three districts to investigate farmers’ and stockists preferred traits for maize selection in western Tanzania, determine maize production constraints facing farmers and assess NLB disease prevalence in the same area. A focus group of 30 farmers was selected in each of the three villages. Transect walks, wealth ranking and historical profiles were used in an informal survey. One hundred and fifty questionnaires were used in a formal survey. The recorded yield was only 1 t haˉ¹. Thirteen major maize production constraints, 13 insect pests and vermin and, 11 diseases were recorded. The NLB disease was reported to be increasing in severity in all farmers’ fields. Farmers’ preferred traits included resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses, early maturity, preferred milling qualities, high storage qualities and high yielding potential. Stockists mentioned 12 preferred maize variety traits which included high yielding, disease and insect pest resistance, heavy grain, large cob size and large grain sizes. Similarity between farmers and stockist variety preference ranking were found to exist. The occurrence and distribution of northern leaf blight (NLB) disease study was conducted to assess the incidence and severity of NLB disease in farmers’ fields in seven districts. The study was conducted for two seasons. In each season, 175 fields with 5600 plants were sampled. There were sixteen varieties grown with wide NLB disease reaction variation. Gembe, a landrace, was among the three observed resistant varieties. The NLB disease has changed its distribution pattern affecting all districts of the western zone. The disease incidence in season two (2009/2010) significantly increased from season one (2008/2009) t= -3.25 (348), P= 0.001. About 30% of both means of blight incidence and severity were recorded in the area. Characterization and screening of maize landraces for northern leaf blight disease resistance was conducted to determine the genetic relationships among landraces, assess maize landraces as sources of NLB disease resistance and assess important agronomic traits for future maize improvement. Ninety breeding materials consisting of 71 landraces and 19 commercial varieties were evaluated. The average yield of landraces under research management was 2.3 t haˉ¹. Landrace TZA 3075 was identified as NLB disease resistant. Yield potential, dent grain texture, white endosperm and husk cover were important agronomic traits observed among landraces. There were high variations in terms of morphology and NLB disease resistance among the landraces. Five principal components contributed to 71.98 % of total variation. Clusters analysis revealed five distinct groups of landraces. Leaves/plant, infested leaves/plant, lesion number, lesion length, lesion width and NLB disease incidence traits highly contributed to variation and grouping of landraces. Combining ability analysis for northern leaf blight disease resistance was conducted to estimate the combining ability for NLB disease resistance of 11 maize inbred lines adapted to Tanzanian conditions, determine maternal effects which are involved in NLB disease resistance in maize germplasm, and determine the heterosis in the F1 hybrids. A full 11 x 11 diallel cross was performed. All top ten experimental hybrids in each of the three sites had negative midparent heterosis for NLB disease severity. The overall mid-parent heterosis means for yield across sites was 152%. The mean sum of squares for GCA was highly significant (P< 0.001) on disease severity indicating additive gene action effects. Mean sum of squares for SCA were highly significant for disease severity and yield implying non-additive gene action effects. The mean squares for reciprocal effects were highly significant on yield and non-maternal sum of squares had significant effect (P<0.05) on yield. The GCA contribution was high for disease severity (91%) and lesion number (85%). Almost, all GCA effects for NLB disease resistance were negative implying contribution to disease resistance. Due to preponderance of the additive gene action, recurrent selection could be used to improve the resistance of inbred lines while the non-additive gene action could be exploited in breeding for disease resistant hybrids. Generation mean analysis of northern leaf blight disease resistance was conducted to determine the mode of gene action involved in the inheritance of resistance to NLB disease in five inbred lines adapted to Tanzania at contrasting environments, estimate heterosis and heritability in five tropical inbred lines. Generation mean analysis was conducted using a six parameter model comprising P1, P2, F1, F2, BCP1 and BCP2 generation progenies. The mean sum of squares for environment, replication with the nested environment, generations, generations x environment interactions were highly significant (P<0.001). The full model of additive, dominance, additive x additive and additive x dominance epistatic effects was highly significant (P<0.001). Nonetheless, the additive gene effects were predominant ranging between 57% and 89% which was matched by large heritability (54%-85%). The average degree of dominance ranged between -0.52 and 0.88 supporting observations of partial dominance. The NLB disease severity showed a continuous distribution in all three sets for F2, BCP1 and BCP2 populations which is an indication of quantitative nature of inheritance and additive gene effects. The mid parent heterosis ranged from -19 to 1%. Therefore, resistance to NLB disease could be improved through selection by exploiting the additive gene effects. The epistatic gene effects would cause less complications because they were negligible (<25%). The client oriented breeding for maize northern leaf blight disease resistance was carried out to perform farmers and stockists assessment on the 110 F1 experimental maize hybrids and compare them with breeders selection criteria. Breeders selection criteria ranked 10 top high yielding experimental hybrids. Farmers developed 14 while stockists developed 13 selection criteria. The most preferred hybrids by farmers were VL 05616 x CML 159, CML 159 x KS03- 0B15-47 and EB04-0A01-304 x CML 442 while stockists preferred VL 05616 x CML 395, EB04-0A01-304 x CML 442 and VL 05616 x CML 159. Two F1 experimental hybrids EB04- 0A01-304 x CML 442 and CML 159 x CML 442 appeared in all top five ranked hybrids by breeders, farmers and stockists. Generally, findings showed that, farmers, stockists and breeders coincide in some selection criteria but also differ in other cases. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2012.

This study focuses on the issue of Pastoral Care and Counselling to the parishioners under Church discipline in the North Western Diocese (NWD) of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Tanzania (ELCT). The dissertation is concerned with the understanding of Church discipline in the Old Testament, New Testament, from the Early Church up to the present day. The study focuses especially on the history and the practice of Church discipline in the North Western Diocese. The main body of this study is in chapters four and five. Chapter four discusses the danger and the blessings for a parishioner who is under Church discipline. Chapter five discusses the avenues by which to care for and counsel parishioners who are under Church discipline. It is the writer's understanding that the methodology used on how to care for and counsel parishioners under Church discipline can be applied to all parishioners in the Diocese. It is the emphasis of the researcher of this dissertation that there is inadequate care of souls due to lack of training and discipline in the Church. We need discipline in order to challenge our defense patterns of behaviour in the understanding ourselves and others and in knowing and learning to be responsible Christian people. The study calls the Church of the North Western Diocese to rethink the whole issue of how to practise Church discipline in such a way that parishioners are not judged, but comforted by caring and counselling. It is the writer's understanding that the Church has kept discipline because it maintains that God's grace is not cheap. Grace is not a licence to sin. The true aim of Church discipline is to help the sinner to restore his or her relationship 11 with Christ and the Church. To do this, parishioners under Church discipline are urged to repent of their sin and live in fellowship with God. If parishioners under Church discipline refuse to repent they have to carry the fate for their sin. There is no mercy without repentance. It is the writer's belief that the healthy practice of pastoral care and counselling in the North Western Diocese will depend upon the regaining of a balance and the interaction between healing, sustaining, guiding and reconciling models. Through this understanding, pastoral care becomes a Christian response to humanity's need. Therefore one can conclude that pastoral care and counselling can balance and heal the effect of Church discipline. Although this study focuses on the North Western Diocese (NWD), the questions and problems concerning the issue of Church discipline and the way to approach it might be similar in many Churches in Tanzania and also in Africa. Unless otherwise indicated, scriptural quotations are taken from the HOLY BIBLE, NEW REVISED STANDARD VERSION (NRSV), copyright @ 1989 by the Division of Christians Education of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America. / Thesis (M.Th.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1998.

Background: Today, the tourism sector is one of the economically fastest growing sectors in the world. Volunteer travel is a type of service that is gaining in popularity and a number of tour operators organize these trips. Few aid agencies engaged in volunteer activities and therefore the interest in volunteer travel is caught by tour operators. These tourists travel in small groups and interact with locals. Today fifty million children in Africa are orphaned and Africans struggling with the care of these children by founding orphanages. Research questions: What does volunteers contribute with during their stay at orpahanges? What view does volunteers and orphanages have on volunteer tourism? Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to examine the positive and the negative effects that volunteer tourism contributes to orphanages. Method: The study is based on a qualitative approach with semi-and unstructured interviews, observations, and email interviews. The study is based on a constructionist approach and is conducted at three orphanages in northern Tanzania. Conclusions: Volunteer tourism contributes with both positive and negative effects on the orphanage. Exemples of negative effects include the emotions that arise in children and staff when volunteers go home, the independent situation that arises because of the fact that the orphanages live off donations, poor self-esteem that accurs when children see that volunteers have it better comparing to themselves, the volunteers self fulfillment leads to less involvement in the orphanage during their visit and also the volunteers lifestyles can create confusion for the children. Positively with volunteer tourism is such that volunteers contribute to increased communication, the visit will lead to happiness and increased activity, gifts and money that contribute to better living standards and also increased knowledge to the children and staff.

The thesis has considered an asset-based alternative to the conventional use of consumption or expenditure in defining well-being and poverty. The motivation for the study was to derive a measure of economic status by households in the absence of income or consumption data. This is particularly important for a country like Tanzania where consumption, expenditure and price data are either limited or unavailable. The thesis uses data from The Tanzania 2002 Population and Housing Census information on housing conditions and ownership of certain durable goods to construct an asset index. This index is a proxy for long-run household wealth. When tested for reliability the asset index was found to be robust, coherent and a good predictor for economic status among the "poor" and "non-poor". The study has revealed that with further research, poverty analysts in Tanzania may also use the household asset index as an explanatory or as a means of mapping welfare in the country. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2006.