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Active targeting with controlled delivery of therapeutic agents to bone is an ideal approach for treatment of several bone diseases. Since bisphosphonates (BPs) are known to have high affinity to bone mineral and are being widely used in treatment of osteoporosis, they are well-suited for drug targeting to bone. For this purpose, bifunctional hydrazine-bisphosphonates (HBPs) with spacers of various lengths and lipophilicity were synthesized and studied. Crystal growth inhibition assays demonstrated that the HBPs with shorter spacers bound more strongly to bone mineral, hydroxyapatite (HA), than did alendronate. HBPs were also demonstrated to be non-toxic to MC3T3-E1 pre-osteoblasts. The targeted delivery of the HBP-conjugated model drug, 4-nitrobenzaldehyde, was demonstrated through hydrolysis of the hydrazone linkage at the low pH of bone resorption and wound healing sites. In another series of experiments, a method to orient proteins on HA surfaces was developed to improve protein bioactivity. Enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) and β-lactamase were used as model proteins. These proteins have a Ser or Thr at their N-terminus, which was oxidized to obtain a single aldehyde group that was subsequently used for bonding HBPs of various length and lipophilicity through formation of a hydrazone bond. The amount of protein immobilized through various HBPs was determined and found not to be exclusively dependent on the length of HBPs. The enzymatic activity of HBP-immobilized β-lactamase, measured with cefazolin as substrate, was found to be higher than β-lactamase that was simply adsorbed on HA. In a third set of studies, HBPs were evaluated for delivering parathyroid hormone (PTH) to bone mineral to enhance cell responses for bone formation. PTH was oxidized and conjugated to HBPs, followed by targeting to bone wafers. In vitro bioassays demonstrated that HBP-targeted PTH stimulated greater synthesis of cAMP in pre-osteoblasts compared to surfaces with simply adsorbed PTH. HBPs were also found to have similar pro-apoptotic activity to widely used alendronate. Overall, HBPs can be used for drug delivery to bone and oriented immobilization of proteins and peptides, with or without anti-osteoclastic action, for a variety of applications including bone tissue engineering.

A major problem regarding public health is the emergence of antibiotic resistant bacterial strains, especially methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). This is mainly attributed to the unnecessary overuse of antimicrobial drugs by patients; however, one aspect that is often neglected is their untargeted mechanism of action, affecting not only the infection itself but also commensal bacteria which are often opportunistic pathogens causing many diseases as well. Therefore, our goal was to develop a bioresponsive antibiotic delivery system triggered by virulence factors. The designed system is comprised of a polymer to enhance its pharmacokinetic profile, a peptide cleavable linker, and the antibiotic agent itself. The bacterial protease aureolysin which is expressed by S. aureus during infections would cleave the linker and partially release the antibiotic which would be still attached to a remaining tetrapeptide. These would be cleaved by a group of proteases naturally present in plasma called aminopeptidases, finally releasing the compound. In the first part of this project, we searched for a suitable sequence to serve as a cleavable linker. It should be sensitive towards the target bacterial protease but not be cleaved by any human enzymes to guarantee the specificity of the system. Therefore, we synthesized three peptide sequences via Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis and incubated them with aureolysin as well as with many human matrix Metalloproteases. The analysis and quantification of enzymatic activity was monitored chromatographically (RP-HPLC). The plasminogen originated sequence was chosen since it was not sensitive towards MMPs, but cleaved by aureolysin. In the second part, we tried to incorporate the chosen peptide sequences as crosslinkers in hydrogel formulations. The purpose was to physically incorporate the antibiotic within the hydrogel, which would be released by the cleavage of those sequences and the consequent loosening the hydrogel net. For that purpose we used a commercially available hydrogel kit with a PVA matrix modified with maleimide, which allows a conjugation reaction with thiol functionalized crosslinkers. Three fluorophores were chosen to serve as antibiotic models and a diffusion assay was performed. Only the glomerular structured Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) presented a low diffusion rate, thus the aureolysin release assays were performed only using this prototype. Assays showed that with a low hydrogel polymer concentration, the fluorophore either quickly diffused into the medium or was not released at all. The physical incorporation of the antibiotic within the hydrogel pores was therefore abolished as a suitable release approach. For a second attempt, we covalently bound a fluorophore to the linker, which was conjugated to the hydrogel matrix. The incubation with aureolysin and subsequent RP-HPLC analysis showed a peak with the same retention time correspondent to the fragment product after cleavage of the free linker. This is a proof that the concept of linking the peptide sequence to the antibiotic is a promising strategy for its bioresponsive release. Within the third part of this study, we analyzed the degradation of the resulted fragment after aureolysin activity and subsequent full release of the antibiotic by human aminopeptidases. We determined the concentration of those enzymes in human plasma and synthesized the fragment by conjugating the tetrapeptide sequence to aminofluorescein via EDC/NHS reaction. By incubating the construct with the lowest aminopeptidase concentration measured in plasma, the fluorophore was completely released within two hours, showing the efficacy of these enzymes as bioresponsive agents. The last part was the construction of the PEGylated linker-antibiotic. For this purpose we chose the tetracycline like antibiotic chelocardin (CHD) as our prototype. The conjugation of the linker- CHD to the polymer was performed by copper free click chemistry. The cleavage rate of the linker by aureolysin was very similar to the one obtained for the free peptide, indicating that the PEGylation does not interfere on the enzymatic activity. However, by trying to increase the loading ratio of chelocardin onto the polymer, we observed a very low cleavage rate for the system, indicating the formation of aggregates by those constructs. The designed system has proved to be a smart strategy for the delivery on demand of antibiotics in which the drug is only released by the presence of S. aureus during their virulent state. / Ein weltweites Problem des Gesundheitswesens ist die Entstehung von antibiotikaresistenten Bakterienstämmen, besonders Methicillin-resistenter Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Eine wichtige Ursache für Resistenzentwicklungen ist die unüberlegte Verschreibung von Antibiotika; allerdings das breite Wirkspektrum der meisten Substanzen ist ein stets vernachlässigter Aspekt. Dies betrifft nicht nur die Pathogene selbst, sondern auch die bakterielle Mikroflora des Patienten, die opportunistische Pathogene darstellen und in machen Fallen ebenfalls verschiedene Erkrankungen hervorrufen können. Unser Ziel ist die Entwicklung eines bioresponsiven Freisetzungssystems für Antibiotika. Das System besteht aus einem Polymer zur Optimierung der Pharmakokinetik, einem Peptidlinker sowie dem eigentlichen Antibiotikum. Die bakterielle Protease Aureolysin wird von S. aureus exprimiert, sobald sich das Bakterium in seinem virulenten Zustand befindet. Das Enzym schneidet den Linker, wodurch das Antibiotikum zum Teil freigesetzt wird. Da es noch an Aminosäureartefakte gebunden ist, muss es im Anschluss durch eine Aminopeptidase, einer Gruppe von Exoproteasen des humanen Plasmas, abgespalten werden. Die erste Phase des Projektes war die Suche nach einer passenden Peptidsequenz, die als Linker geeignet ist. Diese soll nur durch die Zielprotease und nicht durch andere humane Proteasen geschnitten werden, um die Spezifizität des Systems zu gewährleisten. Es wurden drei Sequenzen ausgewählt und mittels Festphasen-Peptidsynthese hergestellt. Diese wurden mit Aureolysin sowie humanen Matrix-Metalloproteasen (MMP) inkubiert; die Produkte wurden chromatographisch (RP-HPLC) charakterisiert und die enzymatische Aktivität bestimmt. Die von Plasminogen abgeleitete Sequenz wurde von keiner der Matrix-Metalloproteasen geschnitten, wohl aber von Aureolysin. Eine ausführliche Analyse des Aureolysin-Verdaus zeigte, dass der Linker innerhalb weniger Stunden komplett geschnitten wird. In der zweiten Phase wurde die Peptidsequenz als Crosslinker in verschiedene Hydrogelmatrices inkorporiert. Die Strategie war der physikalische Einschluss des Antibiotikums in das Hydrogel und die anschließende Freisetzung durch Spaltung dieser Sequenzen und Lockerung des Hydrogelnetzes auf molekularer Ebene. Hierfür wurde ein kommerzielles Hydrogelkit mit Maleinsäureamid-modifizierter PVA Matrix verwendet, die mit Thiol-funktionalisierten Linkern konjugiert werden können. Drei verschiedene Fluorophore wurden als Modelle für die Diffusionsversuche verwendet. Nur das glomeruläre green fluorescent protein (GFP) besaß eine ausreichend niedrige Diffusionskonstante und wurde deshalb als Prototyp für die weiteren Schneidversuche verwendet. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass der Fluorophor bei niedrigen Matrixkonzentrationen schnell aus den Poren in das umgebende Medium diffundiert, während er bei höheren Konzentrationen nicht freigesetzt wird. Die physikalische Inkorporierung des Antibiotikums wurde aus diesen Gründen verworfen und nicht durchgeführt. Als zweiter Versuch wurde der Fluorophor kovalent an den Linker gekoppelt, welcher im Anschluß an die Matrix konjugiert wurde. Die Inkubation mit Aureolysin und die nachfolgende RP-HPLC-Analyse zeigte einen Peak bei der Retentionszeit entsprechend dem Fragmentprodukt, das durch Inkubation des freien Linkers entsteht. Die kovalente Bindung zwischen der antimikrobiellen Substanz und dem Linker ist eine vielversprechende Strategie für eine bio-responsive Freisetzung. In der dritten Phase des Projektes wurde die Zersetzung des resultierenden Fragments nach Aureolysin-Verdau und die anschließende vollständige Freisetzung des Antibiotikums durch humane Aminopeptidasen untersucht. Die Konzentration an Aminopeptidasen im humanen Plasma wurde bestimmt und die durch Aureolysin entstehende Peptidsequenz an Aminofluorescein mittels EDC/NHS-Reaktion gekoppelt. Die Inkubation des Konstruktes mit der niedrigsten Aminopeptidase-Konzentration, die im Plasma bestimmt werden konnte zeigte, dass der Fluorophor in zwei Stunden vollständig freigesetzt wurde. Die letzte Phase hat sich mit der PEGylierung des Linker-Antibiotikum-Komplexes beschäftigt. Das Tetracyclin-analoge Antibiotikum Chelocardin wurde als Prototyp ausgewählt und am Helmholtz-Institut für Pharmazeutische Forschung des Saarlandes synthetisiert. Die Konjugation des Linker-CHD-Konstruktes an das Polymer wurde mittels kupferfreier Click-Chemie durchgeführt. Der PEGylierte Linker wurde in einer ähnlichen Rate durch Aureolysin geschnitten wie der freie Linker, was beweist, dass das Polymer keinen Einfluss auf die enzymatische Aktivität hat. Allerdings wurde während der Optimierung der Beladung von CHD je Polymermolekül eine sehr niedrige Freisetzung des Antibiotikums beobachtet, was durch Aggregatbildung der Konstrukte erklärt werden kann. Das entwickelte System ist eine interessante Delivery-Strategie für Antibiotika, welche hierdurch nur durch virulente S. aureus-Erreger freigesetzt werden.

The invasive nature and undesirable side-effects related to conventional cancer therapy, such as surgery and chemotherapy, have led to the development of novel drug delivery systems (DDS). A minimally invasive DDS using near-infrared (NIR) light as a trigger for drug release is investigated to reduce the adverse side-effects triggered by systemic delivery of chemotherapeutic drugs. The low tissue absorbance in the NIR region, λ = 650–2500 nm, allows the irradiation to penetrate through tissues to release cisplatin from a NIR-sensitive nanocomposite of Au-Au₂S. Our laboratory has recently shown that cisplatin can be effectively released from Au-Au₂S upon NIR irradiation. Cisplatin was loaded onto Au-Au₂S through its adsorption on COOH-functionalized alkanethiols coated on Au-Au₂S. The current work focuses on the development of methods to control the release of cisplatin. Drug release is controlled by either the irradiation parameters or the type of coatings. The effect of different coatings on NIR sensitivity and drug release is investigated. Molecular layers of HS-(CH₂)n-COOH and HS-CH₂-COO-CH₂(CH₂CH₂O)xCH₂-COOH have been successfully coated onto Au-Au₂S. The effect of different surface layers on drug adsorption is being examined. In addition, a mathematical model has been developed to describe the thermal effects of different irradiation parameters on soft tissues. / Singapore-MIT Alliance (SMA)

Η Πακλιταξέλη αποτελεί ένα από τα πιο ευρέως διαδεδομένα χημειοθεραπευτικά φάρμακα και ενδείκνυται κυρίως σε καρκίνο του πνεύμονα, του μαστού, των ωοθηκών, καθώς και σε σάρκωμα Kaposi ασθενών με AIDS. Ωστόσο, η χρήση της συνδέεται με αρκετές παρενέργειες, γεγονός που επέβαλε την τροποποίησή της σε Συστήματα Ελεγχόμενης Χορήγησης (DDS). Τα συγκεκριμένα συστήματα επιτρέπουν την εκλεκτική μεταφορά του φαρμάκου στον καρκινικό ιστό με μηχανισμούς παθητικής ή ενεργητικής στόχευσης, καθώς και τον έλεγχο του φαρμακοκινητικού προφίλ. Ιδιαίτερα ελπιδοφόρα φαίνεται να είναι η ενσωμάτωση της PTX σε πολυμερικές νανοκάψουλες. Η δομή πυρήνα - κελύφους των νανοκαψακίων καλύπτει τη χορήγηση μίας μεγάλης ποικιλίας ενεργών συστατικών, με το ενδιαφέρον να εστιάζεται σε αντινεοπλασματικά, αντιφλεγμονώδη, αντιικά και ανοσοκατασταλτικά. Η εισαγωγή των φαρμάκων στα νανοκαψάκια μπορεί να οδηγεί σε αύξηση της αποτελεσματικότητας και σταθερότητας των δραστικών ουσιών, καλύτερη in vivo συμπεριφορά και υψηλότερη ενδοκυτταρική πρόσληψη. Ορισμένες μελέτες προτείνουν την εγκαψακίωση νανοσωματιδίων οξειδίου του σιδήρου (SPIONs) σε συστήματα χορήγησης φαρμάκων, τα οποία έχουν αποδειχθεί πολύτιμα εργαλεία τόσο στον τομέα της διάγνωσης (μαγνητική τομογραφία πυρηνικού συντονισμού), όσο και της θεραπείας. Με εφαρμογή εξωτερικού εναλλασσόμενου μαγνητικού πεδίου καθίσταται εφικτή η συσσώρευση των μαγνητικών νανοφορέων στον ιστό - στόχο (μαγνητική στόχευση), ενώ η θεραπεία επέρχεται μέσω επαγωγής μαγνητικής υπερθερμίας. Η εν λόγω μεταπτυχιακή διατριβή πραγματεύεται την εγκαψακίωση της ΡΤΧ και των SPIONs σε πολυμερικές νανοκάψουλες, παρασκευασμένες από το συμπολυμερές πολυ(γαλακτικού οξέος) – πολυ(αιθυλενογλυκόλης) (PLA-PEG). Το PLA αποτελεί ένα βιοαποικοδομήσιμο πολυμερές, το οποίο δημιουργεί έναν πυρήνα, ικανό να εγκαψακιώσει και να προστατέψει υδρόφοβες ουσίες. Από την άλλη μεριά, το PEG είναι ένα υδρόφιλο, βιοσυμβατό πολυμερές, το οποίο προσδίδει στερεοχημική σταθεροποίηση στα συστήματα και παρατείνει το χρόνο κυκλοφορίας τους. Πιο συγκεκριμένα, παρασκευάστηκαν μαγνητικά νανοκαψάκια με συμπολυμερή PLA-PEG, διαφορετικού μοριακού βάρους, με τη μέθοδο της καθίζησης (nanoprecipitation). Οι μαγνητικοί νανοκρυσταλλίτες συντέθηκαν με την τεχνική της θερμικής αποικοδόμησης, ενώ ως πρόδρομη ένωση χρησιμοποιήθηκε ελαϊκός σίδηρος [Fe(Olate)3]. Διερευνήθηκαν διάφορες παράμετροι σχετικά με την σύνθεση (ποσότητα SPIONs, αναλογία πολυμερούς/ελαίου, ποσότητα φαρμάκου), έτσι ώστε να δημιουργηθούν βέλτιστοι νανοφορείς. Επιπλέον, εξετάστηκε η σταθερότητα των διασπορών τόσο στο χρόνο, όσο και στην παρουσία ηλεκτρολυτών (NaCl) με μέτρηση της υδροδυναμικής διαμέτρου και του επιφανειακού φορτίου, χρησιμοποιώντας την τεχνική της δυναμικής σκέδασης φωτός (DLS). Ακολούθησε μορφολογική εκτίμηση των νανοκαψακίων με τη βοήθεια ηλεκτρονικής μικροσκοπίας διάδοσης (ΤΕΜ) και δομικός χαρακτηρισμός τους μέσω φασματοσκοπίας FTIR. Σε επόμενο στάδιο, μετρήθηκε το ποσοστό φόρτωσης της ΡΤΧ με χρήση υγρής χρωματογραφίας (HPLC) και πραγματοποιήθηκαν μελέτες αποδέσμευσης, παρουσία και μη εξωτερικού εναλλασσόμενου μαγνητικού πεδίου, σε διάλυμα φωσφορικών (pH =7.4) στους 37 oC για 24 h. Τέλος, εξετάστηκε η κυτταροτοξικότητα των «φορτωμένων» (με ΡΤΧ) μαγνητικών νανοκαψακίων και συγκρίθηκε με εκείνη των «κενών» νανοφορέων, αλλά και του φαρμάκου. Ο έλεγχος αυτός πραγματοποιήθηκε με χρώση καρκινικών κυττάρων (σειρά Α549) από ιωδιούχο προπίδιο (ΡΙ) και μέτρηση του φθορισμού των νεκρών κυττάρων από κυτταρομετρία ροής. Τα αποτελέσματα ήταν ιδιαιτέρως ικανοποιητικά, καθώς οι νανοφορείς παρουσιάζουν σταθερότητα στο χρόνο (έλεγχος περιόδου ενός μηνός), αλλά και παρουσία ηλεκτρολυτών. Το ποσοστό φόρτωσης της ΡΤΧ υπολογίστηκε ~1.2 %, ενώ η απόδοση εγκαψακίωσης κυμαινόταν από 15 - 25 %. Επίσης, παρουσίασαν υψηλή απόδοση εγκαψακίωσης SPIONs (~65 %), εξαρτώμενη από την πολυμερική σύνθεση των νανοφορέων. Οι μελέτες απελευθέρωσης παρουσίασαν παρατεταμένη αποδέσμευση της πακλιταξέλης, η οποία αποκρίνεται σε παρουσία εξωτερικού μαγνητικού πεδίου. Τέλος, τα «κενά» (χωρίς φάρμακο) μαγνητικά νανοκαψάκια δεν παρουσίασαν κυτταροτοξικότητα, σε αντίθεση με τα «φορτωμένα» με φάρμακο, τα οποία προκάλεσαν μεγαλύτερη τοξικότητα σε καρκινικά κύτταρα και από το ελεύθερο φάρμακο. Τα παραπάνω αποτελέσματα δικαιολογούν την περαιτέρω διερεύνηση της πιθανής χρησιμοποίησης των PLA-PEG μαγνητικών νανοκαψακίων ως φορείς στοχευμένης χορήγησης της Πακλιταξέλης. / Paclitaxel is one of the most widely used chemotherapeutic drugs and is particularly suitable to lung, breast, ovarian cancer and AIDS - related Kaposi sarcoma. However, its use is associated with several side effects, certain of them attributable to the formulation used clinically today, which imposed its formulation in Targetable Drug Delivery Systems (TDDS). These systems allow selective delivery of drug in the tumor tissue by passive or active targeting mechanisms and control of the pharmacokinetic profile. Particularly promising appears to be the encapsulation of PTX in polymeric nanocapsules. The core - shell structure of the nanocapsules covers the delivery of a wide variety of active ingredients, with interest focused on anti-neoplastic, anti-inflammatory, antiviral and immunosuppressive. The nanoencapsulation of drugs can increase the efficiency and the stability of active substances, while allowing better in vivo behavior and higher intracellular uptake. Some studies suggest the encapsulation of iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) in such systems, which have been proven valuable tools in both diagnosis (through nuclear magnetic resonance imaging) and therapy. The application of an external alternating magnetic field permits the accumulation of magnetic nanocarrier in target-tissue (magnetic targeting), while the treatment occurs by inducing magnetic hyperthermia. This thesis discusses the encapsulation of PTX and SPIONs in polymeric nanocapsules, prepared from biocompatible poly (lactic acid) - poly (ethylene glycol) (PLA-PEG) copolymers. The PLA is a biodegradable polymer, which generates a core capable to encapsulate and protect hydrophobic substances. On the other hand, the PEG is a hydrophilic, biocompatible polymer, which gives steric stabilization systems and prolong their circulation time after intravenous administration. Specifically, magnetic nanocapsules were synthesized with varying molecular weight of copolymers PLA-PEG through the nanoprecipitation method, while the magnetic nanoparticles were composed through thermal decomposition and oleate iron [Fe (Olate) 3] was used as a precursor. The optimum parameters were determined, conferring to the nanocapsules high stability. In addition, they were characterized with regard to their size and zeta potential at different salt concentrations (up to 2M NaCl) using dynamic light scattering (DLS). Then, the morphological characteristics of nanocapsules were evaluated by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and their structural characterization by spectroscopy FTIR. In the next step, the Paclitaxel loading was determined with liquid chromatography (HPLC) and release studies were conducted in phosphate buffer (pH = 7.4) at 37 oC for 24 h, including triggered drug-release by application of AC magnetic field. Finally, the cytotoxicity of drug-loaded (with PTX) magnetic nanocapsules was tested and compared to that of blank (without drug) nanocarriers and free drug. For these studies the cancer cell line A549 was used and after their incubation with the nanocapsules or the free drug, the dead cells were stained by propidium iodide (PI) and measured by flow cytometry. The obtained results were particularly satisfactory, as nanocarriers show stability over time (up to one month) and at high salt concentrations, much higher than the physiologic one. The loading of PTX was measured to be 1.2%, for a theoretical loading of 1.9 %, and the yield of encapsulation ranged from 15-25%. The nanocapsules also showed high encapsulation efficiency for SPIONs (~ 65%), depending on the polymeric composition of nanocarriers. Drug release studies showed that the nanocapsules exhibited controlled release properties. Furthermore, the release appeared to respond to the presence of external magnetic field. Finally, the «blank» magnetic nanocapsules did not exhibit cytotoxicity, whereas the «loaded» nanocarriers caused higher toxicity than the free drug. These results justify further investigation of the PLA-PEG magnetic nanocapsules as drug delivery systems of Paclitaxel.

This thesis describes observations, techniques and strategies, which contribute towards the development of nanoparticle based detection and treatment of cancer. Quantum dots and biorecognition molecules were studied towards applications in detection and microgels were used in the rational design of a targeted drug delivery vehicle. The fluorescence intensity of quantum dots was examined in buffers commonly used in molecular biology. The fluorescence intensity of ZnS-capped CdSe quantum dots (QDs) was found to vary significantly, depending on the amount of ZnS capping on the QDs or the concentration, pH and type of buffer the QDs were in. Since fluorescence cannot reliably be used to quantify QDs, an alternative quantification method was developed, which does not rely on their fluorescence. This method employs phage display to identify nanoparticle-specific bacteriophage which were then applied in an assay to quantify QDs in environments where absorbance or fluorescence spectroscopy are ineffective. Biorecognition molecules, which can direct nanoparticles to a molecular target, were also identified through phage display. Phage display on whole cells was used to identify a peptide, which was conjugated with QDs to stain HeLa (cervical cancer) cells. A high-throughput phage display screening strategy was also developed, which could enable the simultaneous identification of multiple biorecognition molecules from a single library. QD-encoded microbead barcodes were conjugated to protein targets and then used to screen a phage display library. The beads and the binding phage were then separated using flow cytometry and fluorescence assisted cell sorting. Finally, biorecognition molecules were combined with nanoparticles to create drug delivery vehicles, which were designed to protect, deliver and then release chemotherapeutic drugs through an intracellular pH trigger. PolyNIPAAm and chitosan hydrogels, under 200 nm in diameter, were loaded with chemotherapeutic drugs, conjugated to transferrin and tested in vitro on HeLa cells. These projects demonstrate the great potential in this growing field as well as some of the many challenges that have yet to be overcome.

This thesis describes observations, techniques and strategies, which contribute towards the development of nanoparticle based detection and treatment of cancer. Quantum dots and biorecognition molecules were studied towards applications in detection and microgels were used in the rational design of a targeted drug delivery vehicle. The fluorescence intensity of quantum dots was examined in buffers commonly used in molecular biology. The fluorescence intensity of ZnS-capped CdSe quantum dots (QDs) was found to vary significantly, depending on the amount of ZnS capping on the QDs or the concentration, pH and type of buffer the QDs were in. Since fluorescence cannot reliably be used to quantify QDs, an alternative quantification method was developed, which does not rely on their fluorescence. This method employs phage display to identify nanoparticle-specific bacteriophage which were then applied in an assay to quantify QDs in environments where absorbance or fluorescence spectroscopy are ineffective. Biorecognition molecules, which can direct nanoparticles to a molecular target, were also identified through phage display. Phage display on whole cells was used to identify a peptide, which was conjugated with QDs to stain HeLa (cervical cancer) cells. A high-throughput phage display screening strategy was also developed, which could enable the simultaneous identification of multiple biorecognition molecules from a single library. QD-encoded microbead barcodes were conjugated to protein targets and then used to screen a phage display library. The beads and the binding phage were then separated using flow cytometry and fluorescence assisted cell sorting. Finally, biorecognition molecules were combined with nanoparticles to create drug delivery vehicles, which were designed to protect, deliver and then release chemotherapeutic drugs through an intracellular pH trigger. PolyNIPAAm and chitosan hydrogels, under 200 nm in diameter, were loaded with chemotherapeutic drugs, conjugated to transferrin and tested in vitro on HeLa cells. These projects demonstrate the great potential in this growing field as well as some of the many challenges that have yet to be overcome.

Zugl.: Mainz, Univ., Diss., 2004 / Hergestellt on demand

This study aims to prepare theranostic nanoparticles (NPs) that are expected to increase cancer diagnostics and therapeutic efficacy. We prepared the NPs constituting carbon dots (CDs) as an imaging agent, folic acid as a targeting agent, doxorubicin (DOX), or gemcitabine (GEM) as chemotherapy agents. The NPs include noncovalent FA-CDs-DOX, covalent CDs-FA-DOX, and covalent FA-CDs-GEM. Through ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, and Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy, the fabrication of these NPs was confirmed. It was discovered that the high drug loading efficiency is the noncovalent series while the high drug loading capacity is the covalent series The in-vitro pH-dependent drug release data indicate the NPs release more drugs at around pH 5.0 than at pH 7.4. The NPs sizes are between 2-5 nm. The Cell viability was investigated using the Alamar Blue assay and the three NPs complexes exhibited strong therapeutic efficacy against MDA-MB-468 breast cancer cells as compared with CDs-drug.

The main aim of this study is to synthesize theranostic nanoparticles (NPs) that will drastically increase the diagnostics and therapeutic efficacy for cancer. In this research, we had prepared the NPs which constitute carbon dots (CDs), the imaging agent, Folic acid, the targeting agent, and Doxorubicin (DOX) or Gemcitabine (GEM) as the chemotherapy agents. The prepared NPs include noncovalent FA-CDs-DOX, covalent CDs-FA-DOX, and covalent FA-CDs-GEM. The spectroscopy, ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-vis), fluorescence spectroscopy, and Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), were used to confirm the successful fabrication of these complexes. Through UV-vis analysis, the drug loading capacity (DLC) and drug loading efficiency (DLE) of the complexes were determined. The noncovalent series had a higher DLE of about 83% while the covalent series showed higher DLC, 70% on average indicating high drug content. The in-vitro pH-dependent drug release shows that the noncovalent FA-CDs-DOX and the covalent FA-CDs-GEM series release more drugs into the cancer cells (pH of 5.0) than into healthy normal (pH of 7.4). The sizes of NPs were measure around 2-5 nm with Dynamic light Scattering (DLS). The toxicity of CDs, CDs-drug, and FA-CDs-drug on MDA-MB468 breast cancer cell was tested through the methylthiazolytetrazolium (MTT) assay and found that the FA bonded NPs exhibited strong therapeutic efficacy. More pharmaceutical data towards the cancer cells are investigated by our research collaborators – the pharmaceutical department at ETSU and Xavier University at Louisiana.