Includes bibliography. / This study examines the role of time in the working lives of teachers in the Western Cape in the years 1989 and 1990. The study is based upon interviews with twelve teachers, all of whom were currently teaching or who had been teaching in the recent past. The interviews explored the attitudes and practices of the teachers regarding their timetables, free periods, extra-murals, marking practices and lesson preparation, meetings, homework practices, tests and examinations, and professionalism, in so far as these were affected by considerations of time. The study argues that conflict in schools is produced by the struggle for autonomy, particularly in the classroom practice of teachers, and that this struggle takes the form of competition for control of time. In particular, the study suggests that there are rankings of power and priorities in schools and that these can be better understood by examining the relationships between time, conflict and autonomy.

published_or_final_version / Education / Doctoral / Doctor of Education

This thesis is concerned with teacher agency and how this is achieved within the autonomous schooling model of England’s academies programme. The enquiry draws upon the empirical work conducted in a single case study sponsored academy (‘Bucklands Academy’ ) in 2012. The research was conducted in order to investigate whether the autonomy and freedoms afforded to one such school extended to the teachers working in it and how this affected their professional roles as classroom educators. The thesis begins by sharing my research interest, which relates to whether greater levels of school autonomy enhance the pedagogical approaches taken by teachers. This interest then develops towards the notion of teacher agency and asks the fundamental research question: Is this academy a place where teacher agency can flourish? The study sets out the policy context for academies in England, including an analysis of the historical development of state secondary schooling since 1944. It is shown that the continued ‘need’ to develop a new approach to schooling, eventually in the form of academies, started with claims of unfairness, discrimination and waste of talent brought about by the tripartite system of schooling established by the 1944 Education Act. It then analyses later concerns about the alleged failure of the comprehensive system to achieve its aim of raising standards for all children. The political contexts of state schooling are considered, and particular attention is given to the neo-liberal ideology developed after 1979 of ‘rolling back the state’, introducing choice and competition between schools and increasing the role of the private sector in the delivery of public services. However, the scope of the investigation is not restricted to the national policy context; the research interest lies in establishing what the key reforms have meant for teachers in the classroom and how this has affected the agency they achieve. A number of themes emerged in the review of key literature, including school autonomy, teacher professionalism, the policy to practice paradox and discourses around the academies programme. This thesis sets out a clear theoretical position, which draws upon the critical realist social theory developed by Roy Bhaskar and Margaret Archer. This approach offers a centrist alternative to what Pring (2000b) describes as the false dualism of the two epistemological positions of educational research. Critical realism posits that the world is real and that its structures exist beyond our understanding, but that our knowledge of this stratified world is socially constructed. Within the structure-agency debate, the ecological view of agency developed by Priestley et al. (2015) is adopted, which sees it as being context-dependent and something that individuals achieve in concrete settings. The empirical work within this study consisted of semi-structured interviews, observations and documentary analysis. The main findings from the research are that the case-study school had significant autonomy to develop its own policies and approaches to raising standards. However, this autonomy did not extend to any significant extent below the level of the academy sponsors and the principal. The school had developed a highly performative culture where teachers’ work was centrally directed and through which they were held highly accountable for the attainment of their students. It was found that the way in which autonomy was distributed throughout the school affected the agency of key stakeholders. The sponsors achieved high levels of agency, the principal achieved restricted agency and teachers achieved limited agency. It was found that teachers took one of two approaches to a new curricular reform being introduced by the academy sponsors. They either adopted it or used their limited agency to modify it so that it aligned more closely with their own educational philosophies. There was no indication that any teachers rejected the school’s reform, and it is suggested that this may have been the result of them subordinating this key policy to their ultimate concern of working in a school recognised by school inspectors to be highly effective. This thesis concludes that, contrary to the policy rhetoric, teachers working in one sponsored academy may have had less autonomy than those teaching in local authority maintained schools. This in turn affected the agency they achieved, which appears to undermine the original vision and aims of the academies programme. The thesis concludes by offering possible areas for further research which emerged during this study.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / Includes bibliography / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This study offers an analysis of the realization of the neoliberal discourses in the leadership practices of rural school headmasters. It is a Bourdieuian study of leadership in the rural context in relation to the influence of neoliberalism. The focus of this study is the manner in which neoliberalism manifests itself in the leadership practices of headmasters functioning within a specific geographical context, namely a rural village. The conceptual question therefore focuses on the endeavour made by the headmasters with the manifestation of the neoliberal discourses in the leadership practises of the headmasters in question. The point of reference of this study is that neoliberalism positions schools to function in a distinct way as the logic of the market, privatisation, deregulation and the individual's freedom of choice of school are manifested in the school as field. A further outcome of neoliberalism is that a particular leadership practice namely managerialism, use of data, efficiency, performativity and a focus on outcomes and achievements in the school is established in the field and proffered as norm. The discursive function of neoliberalism in the school as field has a direct impact on the leadership practices of headmasters as it effects a distinct logic of practice which endeavours to influence the headmaster’s leadership habitus in a certain way. Furthermore it tends to influence the headmasters reason to act directly in the form of policy changes and indirectly when proposed as the norm or standard of practice. In this study Bourdieu’s conceptual lenses of habitus, field, capital, strategy and practice are employed as comprehensive theoretical background and analytical lenses. The aim of this study is to understand what the neoliberal discourses entail, to interpret how they manifest themselves in the leadership practices of rural headmasters and to establish the consequences for the headmasters. The data was gathered by means of semi-structured one-on-one interviews during which each headmaster was granted the opportunity to contextualise in his own words, his experience of the effect that neoliberalism discourse has on his leadership practice in his particular rural school. The data of the twelve transcribed interviews (with the use of Atlas.ti computer programme) was coded by selecting segments of the primary documents to which codes were accordingly linked. By applying Bourdieu’s conceptual framework of habitus, field, capital and practice as “super codes”, the data was dealt with thematically and organised accordingly.This study offers an analysis of the realization of the neoliberal discourses in the leadership practices of rural school headmasters. It is a Bourdieuian study of leadership in the rural context in relation to the influence of neoliberalism. The focus of this study is the manner in which neoliberalism manifests itself in the leadership practices of headmasters functioning within a specific geographical context, namely a rural village. The conceptual question therefore focuses on the endeavour made by the headmasters with the manifestation of the neoliberal discourses in the leadership practises of the headmasters in question. The point of reference of this study is that neoliberalism positions schools to function in a distinct way as the logic of the market, privatisation, deregulation and the individual's freedom of choice of school are manifested in the school as field. A further outcome of neoliberalism is that a particular leadership practice namely managerialism, use of data, efficiency, performativity and a focus on outcomes and achievements in the school is established in the field and proffered as norm. The discursive function of neoliberalism in the school as field has a direct impact on the leadership practices of headmasters as it effects a distinct logic of practice which endeavours to influence the headmaster’s leadership habitus in a certain way. Furthermore it tends to influence the headmasters reason to act directly in the form of policy changes and indirectly when proposed as the norm or standard of practice. In this study Bourdieu’s conceptual lenses of habitus, field, capital, strategy and practice are employed as comprehensive theoretical background and analytical lenses. The aim of this study is to understand what the neoliberal discourses entail, to interpret how they manifest themselves in the leadership practices of rural headmasters and to establish the consequences for the headmasters. The data was gathered by means of semi-structured one-on-one interviews during which each headmaster was granted the opportunity to contextualise in his own words, his experience of the effect that neoliberalism discourse has on his leadership practice in his particular rural school. The data of the twelve transcribed interviews (with the use of Atlas.ti computer programme) was coded by selecting segments of the primary documents to which codes were accordingly linked. By applying Bourdieu’s conceptual framework of habitus, field, capital and practice as “super codes”, the data was dealt with thematically and organised accordingly. An analysis of the data revealed that the manifestation of neoliberalism results in the headmaster increasingly having to play a dual role namely that of manager plus that of professional educationist. The leadership skills or practises associated with those two roles are not always compatible. The latter places principals in a very difficult position where, on the one hand they are expected to act as Representative of the Department of Education (in which neoliberal ideas increasingly function), while on the other hand, as professional educationist, the logic behind these practices and its educational accountability may be questioned. Headmasters, however, despite the fact that neoliberalism seeks to enforce a uniform system upon them, respond in a unique, diverse manner to the manifestation of the neoliberal discourses in their leadership practices. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie studie bied ‘n analise van die verwerkliking van die neoliberale diskoerse in die leierskappraktyke van plattelandse skoolhoofde. Dit is ‘n Bourdieuaanse studie oor leierskap in die plattelandse konteks in verhouding tot die invloed van neoliberalisme. Die fokus van hierdie navorsing is die wyse waarop neoliberalisme verwerklik word in die leierskappraktyke van skoolhoofde wat werksaam is in ‘n spesifieke geografiese konteks, naamlik ‘n plattelandse dorp en die konseptuele vraag fokus daarom op watter bemoeienis hierdie skoolhoofde met die neoliberale diskoerse maak, deurdat dit verwerklik word in die leierskappraktyke van die betrokke skoolhoofde. Die uitgangspunt van hierdie studie is dat neoliberalisme skole posisioneer om op bepaalde wyses te funksioneer, soos wat die logika van die mark, privatisering, deregulering en die individu se vryheid van keuse in die skool as veld verwerklik word. Neoliberalisme het verder tot gevolg dat bepaalde tipe leierskappraktyke naamlik managerialisme, bestuur deur die gebruik van data, effektiwiteit, performatiwiteit en ‘n fokus op uitkomste en prestasie in die skool as veld gevestig word en as die norm voorgehou word. Die diskursiewe werking van neoliberalisme in die skool as veld het ‘n regstreekse inwerking op die leierskappraktyke van skoolhoofde deurdat dit tot gevolg het dat ‘n bepaalde logika van praktyke voorgehou word, wat poog om die skoolhoofde se leierskaphabitus op ‘n bepaalde wyse te kondisioneer. Dit poog verder om skoolhoofde se handeling en rede van doen regstreeks in die vorm van beleidsveranderinge en indirek, voorgehou as die norm van praktyke, te beïnvloed. In hierdie studie word Bourdieu se konseptuele lense van habitus, veld, kapitaal, strategie en praktyke as ‘n oorkoepelende teoretiese agtergrond en analitiese lense aangewend. Die doel van hierdie studie is om te verstaan wat die neoliberale diskoerse behels, te interpreteer hoe dit verwerklik word in die leierskappraktyke van plattelandse skoolhoofde en watter betekenis die skoolhoofde daaraan gee. Die data is versamel deur gebruik te maak van semigestruktureerde een-tot-een onderhoude, waartydens die skoolhoofde die geleentheid gebied is om in hulle eie woorde hulle skole te kontekstualiseer en hoe hulle beleef dat die neoliberale diskoerse in hul leierskappraktyke in die betrokke skole op die platteland verwerklik word. Die data van die twaalf getranskribeerde onderhoude is (met behulp van die rekenaarprogram Atlas.ti) gekodeer, deur tekssegmente in die primêre dokumente te selekteer en kodes daaraan te koppel. Deur Bourdieu se konseptuele raamwerk van habitus, veld, kapitaal en praktyke as ‘super kodes’ aan te wend, is die data op tematiese wyse benader en georganiseer. ‘n Analise van die data het aan die lig gebring dat die verwerkliking van neoliberalisme tot gevolg het dat skoolhoofde toenemend ‘n dubbele rol moet vertolk, naamlik die van bestuurder/bemarker en die van professionele opvoedkundige. Die leierskappraktyke verbonde aan hierdie twee verskillende rolle is nie altyd versoenbaar met mekaar nie. Laasgenoemde plaas skoolhoofde in ‘n baie moeilike posisie, waar daar aan die een kant van hulle verwag word om as verteenwoordiger van die onderwysdepartement die beleid van die Staat (waarin neoliberale idees toenemend fungeer) nougeset te implementeer, terwyl hulle aan die ander kant as professionele opvoedkundiges die logika daaragter en opvoedkundigverantwoordbaarheid daarvan kan bevraagteken. Skoolhoofde maak egter, ten spyte daarvan dat neoliberalisme poog om ‘n eenvormige sisteem op hulle af te dwing, op ‘n unieke, diverse wyse mee met die verwerkliking van die neoliberale diskoerse in hul leierskappraktyke.

O presente trabalho tem por objetivo analisar as possibilidades de estudo sobre a autonomia docente em um grupo de professores de Ciências e Matemática, a partir de suas experiências vivenciadas em um curso de robótica educacional, sob a perspectiva de Contreras e Habermas. Tal abordagem procura, sem rebaixar a importância dos conteúdos, retirar sua centralidade do processo de ensino/aprendizagem, trazendo como protagonista, para o palco desse processo, o desenvolvimento das habilidades comunicativas do professor e de seu aprendiz. O trabalho se fundamenta no estudo da autonomia docente feita pelo professor espanhol José Contreras, e para os aspectos comunicativos do curso e de sua posterior análise, no modelo de teoria da argumentação apresentado pelo filósofo alemão Jürgen Habermas em sua obra Teoria do Agir Comunicativo (TAC). Na metodologia são descritas, em detalhes, as atividades desenvolvidas ao longo do curso bem como as dificuldades encontradas para sua execução, as quais acabam por influenciar a reflexão feita pelos professores durante a realização do grupo focal, que nos forneceu o material com o qual procedemos a uma análise de conteúdos fundamentada no trabalho da pesquisadora francesa Laurence Bardin. Os resultados apontam para um efeito limitador na construção da concepção de autonomia docente dos professores provocado principalmente, pela centralidade que os conteúdos curriculares possuem nos processos educativos. Como produto dessa pesquisa é apresentado um curso de robótica no formato WEB no qual os conteúdos se apresentam conforme são exigidos, tanto para a montagem, como para a análise dos experimentos propostos. / The present work has the objective of analyzing the possibilities of studying the autonomy of teachers in a group of teachers of Science and Mathematics, from their experiences in an educational robotics course, from the perspective of Contreras and Habermas. Such an approach seeks, without diminishing the importance of contents, to withdraw its centrality from the teaching / learning process, bringing the development of the communicative skills of the teacher and his apprentice to the stage of this process. The work is based on the study of teaching autonomy made by the Spanish teacher José Contreras, and the communicative aspects of the course and its subsequent analysis, the German theory model of the argument presented by the philosopher Jürgen Habermas in his work Theory of Communicative Action (TAC). The methodology describes in detail the activities developed along the course as well as the difficulties encountered for its execution, which end up influencing the reflection made by the teachers during the realization of the focus group, who provided us with the material with which we proceed to a content analysis based on the work of French researcher Laurence Bardin. The results point to a limiting effect in the construction of teachers' conception of teacher autonomy provoked mainly by the centrality that the curricular contents have in the educational processes. As a product of this research, a robotics course in WEB format is presented in which the contents are presented as required, both for the assembly and for the analysis of the proposed experiments.

O presente trabalho tem por objetivo analisar as possibilidades de estudo sobre a autonomia docente em um grupo de professores de Ciências e Matemática, a partir de suas experiências vivenciadas em um curso de robótica educacional, sob a perspectiva de Contreras e Habermas. Tal abordagem procura, sem rebaixar a importância dos conteúdos, retirar sua centralidade do processo de ensino/aprendizagem, trazendo como protagonista, para o palco desse processo, o desenvolvimento das habilidades comunicativas do professor e de seu aprendiz. O trabalho se fundamenta no estudo da autonomia docente feita pelo professor espanhol José Contreras, e para os aspectos comunicativos do curso e de sua posterior análise, no modelo de teoria da argumentação apresentado pelo filósofo alemão Jürgen Habermas em sua obra Teoria do Agir Comunicativo (TAC). Na metodologia são descritas, em detalhes, as atividades desenvolvidas ao longo do curso bem como as dificuldades encontradas para sua execução, as quais acabam por influenciar a reflexão feita pelos professores durante a realização do grupo focal, que nos forneceu o material com o qual procedemos a uma análise de conteúdos fundamentada no trabalho da pesquisadora francesa Laurence Bardin. Os resultados apontam para um efeito limitador na construção da concepção de autonomia docente dos professores provocado principalmente, pela centralidade que os conteúdos curriculares possuem nos processos educativos. Como produto dessa pesquisa é apresentado um curso de robótica no formato WEB no qual os conteúdos se apresentam conforme são exigidos, tanto para a montagem, como para a análise dos experimentos propostos. / The present work has the objective of analyzing the possibilities of studying the autonomy of teachers in a group of teachers of Science and Mathematics, from their experiences in an educational robotics course, from the perspective of Contreras and Habermas. Such an approach seeks, without diminishing the importance of contents, to withdraw its centrality from the teaching / learning process, bringing the development of the communicative skills of the teacher and his apprentice to the stage of this process. The work is based on the study of teaching autonomy made by the Spanish teacher José Contreras, and the communicative aspects of the course and its subsequent analysis, the German theory model of the argument presented by the philosopher Jürgen Habermas in his work Theory of Communicative Action (TAC). The methodology describes in detail the activities developed along the course as well as the difficulties encountered for its execution, which end up influencing the reflection made by the teachers during the realization of the focus group, who provided us with the material with which we proceed to a content analysis based on the work of French researcher Laurence Bardin. The results point to a limiting effect in the construction of teachers' conception of teacher autonomy provoked mainly by the centrality that the curricular contents have in the educational processes. As a product of this research, a robotics course in WEB format is presented in which the contents are presented as required, both for the assembly and for the analysis of the proposed experiments.