<p>Biomass liquefaction is a nascent field within biorefinery research and has arisen in response to the bottleneck created from materials handling at the front end of the biorefinery. The basic concept is that if the biomass were to be converted into a flowable slurry at the front-end of the process, then the material could smoothly flow into the biorefinery pretreatment and down time due to the material forming a plug would be minimized or eliminated. Three liquefaction routes were studied in this work. These routes were: enzyme route, enzyme mimetic route, and a combined route of enzyme and enzyme mimetic. Through a Techno-economic assessment (TEA), it is possible to determine which route is most-economical to scale up and also to understand the extent to which liquefaction increases/decreases of the price of the biorefinery product.</p> <p>Gasification is a bio-based technology that has recently acquired more attention as it is an efficient conversion process for a variety of feedstocks. As new techniques and process routes are discovered, it is important to analyze which process technique is feasible for commercial scale up, as the highest performing technique may not be the most economical option to pursue. Along the same philosophy, a process concept was developed on Aspen Plus® to treat syn-gas impurities and also recycle the spent solvents. A TEA study was performed to determine the unit cost of treatment and to explore avenues of cost saving.</p>

To support the large­scale integration of renewables in electricity grids, power­to­X­to­power (P2X2P) systems have been proposed. These systems serve to increase the flexibility of thermal power plants while potentially providing both economic and environmental benefits by allowing power from the plant to be redirected into an electrolyzer and converted to a gaseous energy carrier. In this study, the feasibility of a P2X2P system consisting of a combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) power plant coupled with a PEM electrolyzer in the Italian power sector has been investigated. A dynamic technoeconomic model has been developed for both hydrogen and ammonia­based systems together with a profit maximizing dispatch strategy for operation in both day­-ahead and balancing electricity markets. As a part of this, a PEM electrolyzer model was also developed and validated against experimental data. Notable technical improvements were observed as a consequence of the implementation of a P2X2P system in the form of avoided shutdowns and a more even power output. However, any economic and environmental benefits of such improvements were not observed as the addition of the P2X2P system led to a reduction in net present value as well as higher specific emissions of carbon dioxide. When the gaseous energy carrier was utilized as fuel in the CCGT, similar technical performances were achieved by the hydrogen­based and ammonia­based systems. Due to the increased investment cost demanded by the ammonia production process the hydrogen­based system thus seems most suitable for this setup. / För att möjliggöra en storskalig utbyggnad av förnyelsebar energi har power­to­X­to­power­system (P2X2P) föreslagits som en potentiell lösning. Genom att omdirigera electricitet från kraftverket till en elektrolysator och därmed omvandla denna till vätgas kan dessa system förbättra den tekniska flexibiliten hos värmekraftverk samtidigt som de har potential att medföra både ekonomiska och miljömässiga fördelar. Detta examensarbete har undersökt den tekno­ekonomiska potentialen hos ett P2X2P­system bestående av ett gaskombikraftverk i anslutning till en elektrolysator i det italienska kraftnätet. En dynamisk, tekno­ekonomisk modell av både vätgas­ och ammoniakbaserade P2X2P­system samt en vinstmaximerande kontrollstrategi har utvecklats. En modell över en PEMelektrolysator har även utvecklats och validerats gentemot experimentella data. Införandet av ett P2X2P­system till kraftverket påvisade en teknisk förbättringspotential genom ett minskat antal uppstarter samt en mer jämn uteffekt. Huruvida denna tekniska förbättring också medför ekonomisk and miljömässig förbättring eller ej kvarstår att påvisa. Detta då nuvärdet minskade samtidigt som koldioxidutsläppen per producerad kilowatttimme ökade vid införandet av P2X2P­systemet. Då den producerade energibäraren, i form av vätgas eller ammoniak, enbart användes för att ersätta fossilgas som bränsle i kraftverket påvisades marginell skillnad i presetanda mellan de två systemen. De större kostnaderna som medförs av ett ammoniak­baserat system pekar därför på att ett vätgas­baserat system vore att föredra under sådana förutsättningar.

Τα φυσικά ανάλογα έχουν αποδειχθεί, στο παρελθόν, ιδιαίτερα υποσχόμενα για την κατανόηση της συμπεριφοράς των σύνθετων προσαρμοστικών συστημάτων, συμπεριλαμβανομένων της μακροοικονομίας, των βιολογικών συστημάτων και των κοινωνικών δικτύων, καθώς πολλά από τα σημερινά τεχνικά ερωτήματα μπορούν να μετατραπούν σε ένα πρόβλημα κατανεμημένου οικονομικού ελέγχου. Σκοπός της παρούσας διπλωματικής εργασίας είναι η κατασκευή κι αξιοποίηση ενός τέτοιου ανάλογου με τη θερμοδυναμική, ατομική και στατιστική φυσική για τη μελέτη της συμπεριφοράς των απελευθερωμένων αγορών ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας. Αρχικά, επιχειρείται η συστημική ανάλυση όλων των συντελεστών, παραγόντων και λειτουργιών μίας αγοράς ηλεκτρισμού, με εκτενή αναφορά στην ελληνική πραγματικότητα, και, στη συνέχεια, αυτή μοντελοποιείται μαθηματικά, μέσω της οικονομικής ανάλυσης των αγορών και της προσέγγισης εκείνων των οικονομικών μοντέλων αγορών που ανταποκρίνονται στα δίκτυα ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας. Έπειτα, πραγματοποιείται μία εισαγωγή στην εφαρμοσμένη, κατά τον ίδιο τρόπο, στατιστική μηχανική, με τη συνοπτική περιγραφή αντίστοιχων προσεγγίσεων σε γνωστά μοντέλα του χρήματος, του χρέους και της ενεργειακής κατανάλωσης, ενώ τελικά κατασκευάζεται το ζητούμενο μοντέλο που διέπεται από τους κανόνες της στατιστικής μηχανικής, τους περιορισμούς και τις ιδιότητες της ελεύθερης αγοράς ηλεκτρισμού. / Physical analogs have previously proved to be quite promising for understanding the behavior of complex adaptive systems, including macroeconomics, biological systems and social networks, since many of today’s challenging technical questions and problems can be reduced to a distributed economic control problem. The purpose of this thesis is the derivation and development of such an analog to thermal, atomic and statistical physics, in order to study the behavior of free power markets. At first, a systemic approach of all agents, factors and functions of an electric power market is being attempted, with an extended reference to the greek power system and market, and, later, markets are being mathematically modeled, through the economic analysis of markets in general and the approach in those models which can be or have been adopted for electic power transactions. Then, an introduction to respectively applied statistical mechanics is being made, along with a summarized description of previous analogs invented for analyzing the models of money, debt and energy consumption, and, finally, the required model, ruled by the laws of statistical physics and the constraints and properties of free electric power markets, is being developed.

Submitted by Caroline Periotto (carol@ufscar.br) on 2016-09-21T20:12:40Z No. of bitstreams: 1 TeseFFF.pdf: 5653411 bytes, checksum: 875bb8d2ed23313c792c9c246e285a85 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Marina Freitas (marinapf@ufscar.br) on 2016-09-23T18:31:05Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 TeseFFF.pdf: 5653411 bytes, checksum: 875bb8d2ed23313c792c9c246e285a85 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Marina Freitas (marinapf@ufscar.br) on 2016-09-23T18:31:11Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 TeseFFF.pdf: 5653411 bytes, checksum: 875bb8d2ed23313c792c9c246e285a85 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-09-23T18:31:20Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 TeseFFF.pdf: 5653411 bytes, checksum: 875bb8d2ed23313c792c9c246e285a85 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-03-18 / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) / Lignocellulosic ethanol, also called second generation ethanol, is a promising alternative for decreasing fossil fuel dependency globally. Nevertheless, its production process still needs further improvements in order to achieve industrial feasibility. Despite the massive experimental effort in this area, threshold values to be pursued in order to attain an economically feasible process are still missing. In this context, this study focused on constructing a methodology for economic evaluation of early-stage developing processes, such as second generation ethanol, aiming to show the R&D area directions to be followed for a successful industrial implementation of the process. The systematic procedure integrates bioprocess systems engineering (PSE) and economic engineering tools to perform a “retro” tecno-economic analysis. This analysis is able to identify the main process variables that influence the economic feasibility of the process and their target values. Initially, the methodology was tested on a case study involving the production of succinic acid from sucrose by fermentation. The methodology was able to eliminate one of the variables initially considered (sucrose conversion), due to its low influence on the process feasibility. Additionally, target values were obtained for the succinic acid concentration in the fermenter as a function of the selectivity and the specific productivity (the process variables chosen). Finally, the integrated production of ethanol from sugarcane juice and bagasse (first and second generation ethanol, respectively) was assessed. The three variables with the highest effect on the economic feasibility of the process were: the biocatalyst yield, the sucrose conversion and the solid mass fraction, both in the hydrolysis reactor. The reactor productivity, on the other hand, had little impact on the process feasibility. Besides, the experimental results already achieved the values needed for this variable. In general, the methodology was able to yield important information about both case studies required improvements for achieving economic feasibility. Although used in biochemical processes, the methodology is general, applying to all types of chemical processes. / A produção de etanol lignocelulósico, o chamado etanol de segunda geração, é uma alternativa promissora para diminuir a dependência energética global dos combustíveis fósseis. Entretanto, um desenvolvimento maior de seu processo de produção ainda é necessário para sua efetiva implementação industrial. Apesar do grande esforço experimental na área, ainda não existem informações claras sobre os valores limites a serem alcançados nas diversas etapas de processo para que esse se torne economicamente viável. Nesse contexto, o objetivo deste trabalho foi construir uma metodologia para avaliação econômica de processos em estágio inicial de desenvolvimento, como é o caso do etanol de segunda geração, indicando à área de P&D direções a serem seguidas para sua viável implementação industrial. Tal procedimento sistemático integra ferramentas de engenharia de bioprocessos e sistemas e engenharia econômica para realizar uma análise tecno-econômica “reversa”, que permite obter as variáveis que mais influenciam a viabilidade do processo, bem como seus valores limites para que tal viabilidade seja alcançada. Inicialmente, a metodologia proposta foi testada em um estudo de caso envolvendo o processo de produção de ácido succínico a partir da sacarose por rota fermentativa. Nesse processo, a metodologia conseguiu eliminar uma das variáveis inicialmente consideradas (a conversão da sacarose), devido a sua baixa influência. Além disso, foram obtidos valores mínimos para a concentração de ácido succínico no fermentador em função da seletividade e da produtividade específica (as variáveis de processo escolhidas). Em seguida, considerou-se a produção integrada de etanol a partir do caldo e do bagaço de cana-de-açúcar, etanol de primeira e segunda geração, respectivamente. As três variáveis com maior impacto na viabilidade econômica do processo foram: o rendimento do biocatalisador, a conversão da celulose no reator de hidrólise e a fração de sólidos nesse reator. A produtividade do reator, por outro lado apresentou baixo impacto na viabilidade, além de os resultados experimentais já estarem no patamar necessário para essa variável. De modo geral, a metodologia foi aplicada com sucesso aos estudos de caso escolhidos, produzindo dados importantes quanto às melhorias necessárias para que os processos alcancem a viabilidade econômica. Apesar de ter sido aplicada a bioprocessos, a metodologia é geral, sendo adequada ao estudo econômico de qualquer processo químico.

<p dir="ltr"><a href="" target="_blank">The electrification of the transportation sector is pivotal in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and decreasing dependence on fossil fuels. Central to this transition are battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and other clean energy technologies, which rely heavily on critical materials (CMs) such as cobalt, lithium, neodymium, and nickel. </a>These materials are essential for the performance of batteries, advanced electronics, and other components in BEVs. <a href="" target="_blank">However, the limited availability of these CMs poses potential constraints on the widespread adoption of such technologies.</a></p><p dir="ltr">This research delves into the implications of widespread BEV adoption on the demand for CMs in the United States, with a focus on both light-duty vehicles (LDVs) and medium- and heavy-duty vehicles (MHDVs). Various market penetration scenarios were analyzed, revealing that while MHDVs require more CMs per vehicle, the sheer volume of LDV sales drives the overall CM demand, particularly in a scenario with 100% BEV adoption. Key findings highlight that cobalt, graphite, lithium, neodymium, and nickel are critical for BEVs, whereas palladium and rhodium are more crucial for internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). Also explored is the impact of lightweighting on LDVs, revealing that while substituting steel with aluminum increases the total CM quantity per vehicle, it reduces the vehicle's mass, operational energy consumption, and the demand for high-concern battery-related CMs. Additionally, changing the battery cathode chemistry from NMC622 to LFP significantly reduces CM use but increases the demand for strategic materials like copper and phosphorus due to the lower energy density of LFP-based batteries.</p><p dir="ltr">The research also highlights the importance of rare earth permanent magnets (REPMs), <a href="" target="_blank">particularly Neodymium-Iron-Boron (NdFeB) magnets, in clean energy technologies such as electric vehicles and wind turbines.</a> Neodymium, a critical material, faces supply chain risks. To lessen these risks, circular economy strategies have been proposed, including the recovery of needed materials from end-of-life (EoL) products. <a href="" target="_blank">A dynamic material flow analysis (MFA) model was developed to forecast such EoL flows for products containing REPMs and assess the recoverable neodymium from these EoL products. </a>The results indicate that even a modest recycling efficiency of 15% could meet 12% of the Nd demand for EVs by 2050, with reuse meeting up to 70% of the demand.</p><p dir="ltr">With the dynamic MFA model showing that circular economy principles could meet up to 70% of future neodymium demand in 2050, the next step was to investigate the techno-economic feasibility of recycling REPMs. A techno-economic assessment model was developed for establishing a magnet-to-magnet recycling facility for REPMs. Results revealed a net present value (NPV) of $8,867,111 over 20 years, a payback period of 3 years, and an internal rate of return (IRR) of 53%, providing a compelling case for investment in recycling infrastructure. Sensitivity analyses point to the selling price of recycled magnets, feedstock purchase price, facility throughput, and labor costs as the most influential factors on profitability.</p><p dir="ltr"><a href="" target="_blank">Additionally, this research explored the challenges and opportunities in the disassembly and recycling of EoL EV components, particularly traction motors containing REPMs. The complexity of disassembly, driven by varying component sizes and designs, is identified as a significant barrier. By evaluating manual disassembly times and proposing potential automation solutions, the study aims to streamline the disassembly process, thus facilitating more efficient recycling and remanufacturing operations.</a></p><p dir="ltr">The key contributions of this research are summarized as follows:</p><p dir="ltr">· Evaluated the vehicle CM demand of ICEVs and BEVs for LDVs and MHDVs and explored the impact of lightweighting and changing the battery cathode chemistry from NMC622 to LFP on CM demands.</p><p dir="ltr">· Developed a dynamic material flow analysis (MFA) model to forecast end-of-life (EoL) flows of products containing REPMs and assess the recoverable neodymium from these EoL products.</p><p dir="ltr">· Developed a techno-economic assessment (TEA) model to evaluate the viability of a magnet-to-magnet recycling facility.</p><p dir="ltr">· Performed disassembly analysis to assess the ease with which EoL BEV transmissions can be disassembled with a specific focus on the retrieval of traction motors (which house the REPMs) for potential reuse or remanufacturing.</p>