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A long-term forest monitoring program was initiated at Mammoth Cave National Park (MCNP). The objectives of this project were to establish baseline data on the representative forest community types at MCNP based on dominant tree species. Permanent monitoring plots were established in different forest community types throughout the park. A total of 32 permanent plots were established for a combined sample area of 11.4 hectares. All stems larger than 5 cm dbh were measured and mapped within each permanent plot. Data on saplings were also collected. Distributions and abundances were determined for all species in permanent plots and combined for community type summaries. Stand tables were generated for four stem diameter size categories for each permanent plot. Stand analyses included calculation of values for species in four size categories.The results describe the forests of MCNP in various stages of succession. There is a trend toward increasing dominance of shade tolerant species in several of the community types. Species composition is in transition from the dry site, shade intolerant species in the canopy to shade tolerant species in the understory. Corpus f lorida, Acer saccharum, Fagus grandifolia, and Acer rubrum are prominent species in the understory and sapling layers. Early successional species continue to dominate heavily or recently disturbed locations on karst and dry upland sites. Juniperus virginiana is the dominant species in three of the seven community types sampled. The Hemlock and Beech-Maple Communities, Community Types II and VIII, appear to be maintaining their present species compositions and community structures. These are successionally "mature" forests, and include some of the most ecologically important areas of the park. However, Betula alleghaniensis is not reproducing in the Hemlock ravines community type, the only sites where this species occurs. Ailanthus altissima, an invasive exotic tree, was found in several of the areas sampled. / Department of Biology

M.Sc. / This study embraces three facets, namely a checklist of all the freeliving and plantparasitic nematodes, reported from the Kruger National Park, descriptions of the nematode species found during the present study, and a historical review of the family Aporcelaimidae with emphasis on the genus Aporcelaimellus Heyns, 1965, a species compendium and descriptions of several new species ...

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Johannesburg, 2015. / Decades of study devoted to solving the “elephant problem” have generally concurred that increasing elephant populations inevitably reduce biodiversity. However, recent evidence suggests that such reductions can be accompanied by increases in other components of biodiversity, and that ultimately elephant effects are scale-dependent. Although this new perspective now underpins elephant management strategies in savannas such as the Kruger National Park (KNP), South Africa, few empirical studies in support of this strategy have incorporated the contribution of spatial context, or allowed for the emergence of relevant scales, in their interpretations of heterogeneity. Moreover, use of traditional modes of scientific enquiry and statistical approaches for investigating heterogeneity in complex systems have been challenged. Recent advances in spatial statistics, together with an alternative mode of science that draws upon multiple lines of converging evidence rather than testing narrowlyfocused hypotheses, have the potential to address these challenges. However, their practical application for understanding elephants as agents of change remains lacking. Riparian zones along the ephemeral rivers in northern KNP provided an ideal landscape to explore the spatial and temporal parameters of elephant effects in response to surface water, as a critical resource, and hence to develop a framework for a heterogeneity approach for understanding and managing elephants as agents of change in savannas.

MSc., Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, 2011 / Sodic soils are salt-affected soils which are high in sodium in relation to magnesium and calcium. Commonly called sodic sites in the Kruger National Park (KNP), these patches exhibit unique functional characteristics due to the high levels of sodium which cause surface crusting, cracking and the dispersion of clay particles. The aim of this study is to use satellite imagery to map sodic sites in the KNP at different spatial and spectral scales, giving the best option for a repeatable, semi-automated classification. The resultant map of sodic sites for the KNP will be used as a management tool and for future research projects. A field test for sodicity was necessary to collect sufficient ground truth samples for robust accuracy assessment of the image classification. Sodic soils are identified by measuring EC, pH and SAR which are highly variable within site and between testing methods, and therefore not useful for rapid ground truth classification of sodic soils in the field. The sodium level at which clay particle dispersion takes place varies between soils, but is measurable in the field using the Emerson dispersion test. Laboratory tested sodic soil sites from previous research re-tested in this study showed positive results for dispersion of clay particles in water. The physical properties of sodic sites described in the literature and observed in the field were applied to classify sodic sites in the KNP in the field using a decision tree, together with results from the dispersion test and the observed presence of the grass species Sporobolus iocladus. Landsat 7 and SPOT 5 imagery cover the whole park, with ASTER, CAO hyperspectral, LiDAR and black and white orthophotos available for selected areas. The topography elements of crest and footslope were derived from the STRM 90m digital elevation model (DEM). Image preprocessing to top of atmosphere reflectance was performed where necessary and visual enhancement techniques and transformations were applied to derive the normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) and other indices. Spectral signatures were checked against spectral signature libraries, and the class separation was tested using the cluster analysis of spectral signatures. MODIS NDVI averages placed the imagery in phenological context. Object-based image analysis using eCognition was applied to classify the sodic sites of the Shingwedzi and Ripape River catchments. The input imagery was segmented into ecologically meaningful patches and classification accuracy was assessed using the field samples collected using the decision tree to identify four classes: sodic sites (bare and woody), river sand, riverine vegetation and savanna areas. Comparison of the accuracy assessments for the Shingwedzi study site showed that the Landsat 7 and SPOT 5 classification algorithms gave an overall kappa index accuracy of 89% and 78% respectively, and a sodic site kappa index of 90% and 89%. Validation results using the ground truth samples gave an overall kappa index accuracy of 61% for Landsat 7 and 52% for SPOT 5, with a sodic site kappa index of 49% and 39% respectively. The classification algorithms were applied to the Ripape study site for Landsat 7 and SPOT 5 with repeatable results for the SPOT 5 imagery of 88% overall kappa index and 81-93% kappa index for sodic sites using similar seasonal imagery in the wet to early dry season. The Landsat 7 classification algorithm was applied to the entire KNP based on the repeatability results of 56% overall kappa index and 60% sodic site kappa index for the Ripape site. The quest for a repeatable algorithm to classify sodic sites from satellite imagery has been met by the SPOT 5 imagery using scenes acquired at similar seasonal stages. The late wet season or early dry season imagery was used to apply the classification algorithm with the best success. Changes in size or shape of sodic sites over time requires very high resolution imagery and further studies to understand where the edge of sodic sites are detected from imagery, and how the phenology of the vegetation growing on these sites affects detecting any change in size of the sodic site.

The U.S. National Park Service has recognized visitor health and safety as an important component of protected area management. Despite this recognition, research investigating visitor health and safety issues in national parks is lacking. In order to improve the understanding of the factors contributing to visitor injuries, the purpose of this study was to: 1) identify the distribution of injuries in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, 2) examine the relationship between visitor factors and the severity of visitor injuries in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, 3) examine the relationship between environmental factors and the severity of visitor injuries in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, and 4) determine the effectiveness of sign placement and indirect supervision on controlling visitor injuries in the park. Data for this study consisted of 5,947 incident reports recorded in Hawaii Volcanoes between January 1, 1993 and December 31, 2002. The results found that even though 26% of the injuries in the park occur in frontcountry regions, 53% of all visitor injuries took place at the Eruption Site. As well, 130 of the 268 (49%) fatalities occurred on roadway environments and 1,179 of the 1,698 (69%) severe injuries occurred at the Eruption Site. Logistic regression analysis used to examine the relationship between visitor factors and injury severity in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park found that female visitors, visitors wearing minimal footwear and clothing, and visitors carrying no flashlight and minimal drinking water are factors significantly associated with fatal injuries. Visitors wearing minimal footwear and clothing, visitors carrying no flashlight and minimal drinking water, visitors entering restricted areas, visitors with pre-existing health conditions, and visitors aged 50-59 years of age are factors significantly associated with severe injuries. Logistic regression analysis found no built environment factor to be significantly associated with visitor fatalities or severe injuries. However, darkness and rugged terrain were significantly associated with visitor fatalities. Chi-square tests of independence found the combined treatment of sign placement and indirect supervision to have no effect on reducing the frequency and severity of visitor injuries at the Eruption Site.

The National Park Service initiated a backcountry campsite restoration project in 1987 to restore native vegetation on severely degraded campsites in three subalpine lake basins in Yosemite National Park. Restoration treatments included soil scarification, transplanting, manual seeding and site protection. Eight of the treated campsites were monitored in 1990 to evaluate changes in percent vegetation cover, species richness and volunteer establishment that had occurred over the three year period beginning prior to treatment application in the summer of 1987, and ending in the summer of 1990. Percent vegetation cover increased slightly across all sampled quadrats ([mean] = 0.71; N = 214) with mean percent cover changes ranging from -0.37 to 4.36 on individual campsites. Three sites had a loss of cover. Percent cover changes differed most among campsites within lake basins. Changes in percent cover did not differ among lake basins or impact strata (barren core, moderately trampled, and peripheral). Transplanting did not appear to be an important influence on changes in percent cover, as cover changes did not differ between planted and unplanted areas. Survival of transplants planted in 1987 was poor (19.2%), but survival of transplants planted in 1988 was higher (70.5%). Species richness increased slightly across all sampled quadrats ([mean] = 0.54 species per quadrat), with species richness changes on campsites ranging from -0.13 to 1.75 species per quadrat. One site had a mean decrease in species richness. Species richness changes differed among campsites, with the largest increases occurring on those campsites that also had the greatest increases in percent cover. Changes in species richness also differed among impact strata, with the largest increases occurring on barren core areas. There were small differences among lake basins, and species richness changes did not differ between planted and unplanted areas. Volunteer establishment occurred on all treated sites. The number of volunteers per site ranged from one to 45, and 29 species were represented. Individual quadrats had from one to four volunteers. Approximately 50% of the volunteers were producing seed, and overall vigor among volunteers was good. Numbers of volunteers per quadrat differed most strongly among campsites. Slight differences were detected among lake basins and impact strata, with numbers decreasing from barren core to peripheral quadrats. Differences in numbers of volunteers per quadrat between planted and unplanted areas were not detected. Soil scarification may enhance increases in cover, species richness and numbers of volunteers. However, the influence of scarification was tested on two sites only, and further study is recommended. The recovery process appeared to be strongly affected by factors operating at the campsite level. For example, sites with the greatest increases in percent cover also had the greatest increases in species richness and the most volunteers. These sites had coarse soils, relatively abundant sunlight and moisture, and were effectively protected from trampling after site treatment. Results indicate revegetation prescriptions should be made on a site-by-site basis. The performances of eleven species used in transplanting or occurring as volunteers were evaluated. Five species, Agrostis humilis, Calamagrostis breweri, Muhlenbergia filifonnis, Trisetum spicatum, and Calyptridium umbellatum show potential as colonizers in unassisted revegetation and may be useful in manual seeding treatments; three species, Calamagrostis breweri, Carex rossii, and Juncus panyi show potential for transplanting and nursery propagation; and two species, Carex spectabilis and Carex straminiformis, require further study to determine their effectiveness in subalpine revegetation treatments. / Graduation date: 1993

Tourism is one of the largest industries in the world and it continues to grow at a rapid pace. Tourism is dependent upon weather and climate, particularly the length and quality of the outdoor recreation season for nature-based tourism, since it is directly affected by weather. Indirectly, the natural biophysical resources that outdoor tourism is based upon can also be altered by climate. Thus, climate change has the potential to affect nature-based tourism that takes place in national parks and other protected areas. Of the studies that analyse the impacts of climate change in national parks, the vast majority focus on conservation policy and planning rather than tourism. This study applies a single variable regression analysis technique to empirically evaluate the affects of climate change on the quantity and seasonal patterns of visitation to United States national parks under a range of climate change scenarios for the 2020s, 2050s, and 2080s (The Met Office Hadley Centre CM3 B21 (United Kingdom) and Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation MK2B A11 (Australia) climate models were used for the Alaskan parks, and the National Center for Atmospheric Research PCM B21 (United States) and Centre for Climate Systems Research NIES A11 (Japan) models were used for the contiguous states). Fourteen parks are included in the study, representing 12 different climate regimes across the country and 58% of total visitation to all national parks in the United States in 2005. In general, the number of visits to parks in the northern regions of the country, excluding Alaska, is projected to increase annually, with the majority of increases occurring in the spring and fall shoulder seasons. In Alaska, there is no consistent pattern on an annual basis due to projections being calculated for only the low season (winter) for Denali, and for the high season (summer) for Glacier Bay. Based on these projections, visitation may increase during the low season and decrease during the high season for Alaskan parks. Parks in the south are projected to experience decreased annual visitation as temperatures become uncomfortably hot, particularly under high emissions scenarios. The largest changes in visitation are projected to occur in the 2080s, although some parks may experience noticeable changes as early as the 2020s in particular seasons. Small to moderate changes in visitation (up to 10% annually) are projected with the low emission climate change scenarios, even into the 2080s. Small to large visitation changes (up to 47% annually) are projected using the higher emission climate change scenarios. These visitation changes could lead to the need for substantial management changes in certain US national parks as revenue collected from user fees and operational costs are altered. Additional ecological and social impacts resulting from increased visitation will also need to be critically considered. Where fewer visits are projected, decreased revenue may lead to an inability to properly manage the park. The results of the study can be used by the National Park Service and regional and park managers to plan for visitation changes that might occur as climate change continues over the 21st century.

Reducing high lost ratio of voluntary interpreters can save cost of recruiting and retraining for Taroko National Park¡¦s headquarters. The subjects of the study are the 114 voluntary interpreters in Taroko National Park. The methodologies applied here are, questionnaire and observation. The purpose of the study is to understand the relationship between the motivation of the voluntary interpreters and the job satisfaction of the voluntary interpreters to salve the problem of high lost ratio of voluntary interpreters. The findings of the study are as follows: 1.the motivation is mainly "self-growth". 2.the motivation will be changed with personal character and time passing by. 3. the factors influencing the voluntary interpreters¡¦ job satisfaction are "show loving care and support", "communication and co-operation", "responsibility and training". These factors will effect total satisfaction of voluntary interpreters. According to the findings of the study, proposes the headquarters of Taroko National Park how to provide relative courses, rich the content of work, and pay close attention for voluntary interpreters.