Agar is a marine heteropolysaccharide with repeating units consisting of 3,6-α-anhydro-L-galactopyranose and D-galactopyranose linked by α-(1,3) and β-(1,4) linkages. It has been promoted as a prospective replacement for petroleum-based feedstocks and other applications. Enzymatic biotransformation of agar generates high specific products: It is also more environmentally friendly than chemical hydrolysis. In particular, agarolytic bacteria and their agarases are preferred for the processing of agar into sugar derivatives. Agar-producing macroalgae are one of Indonesia's national commodities. However, agar-based products and technology are rarely developed in Indonesia. This research is aimed to explore the potential of an Indonesian marine bacterium and its agarases as bioagents for agar bioprocessing. The research objectives are to identify the novelty of the isolate among known agarolytic bacteria using microbiology and molecular biology approaches, to elucidate the agarolytic system of the bacterium using in silico genome analysis, to express and characterize the recombinant agarases, and to elucidate their potential for producing agar-derived saccharides from Indonesian natural agar. Microbulbifer elongatus PORT2 is a gram-negative marine bacterium that had been isolated from Batu Karas seawater, Pangandaran, West Java Indonesia. PORT2 shows potential as biocatalysts for agar saccharides conversion by showing remarkable agar liquefaction. The annotation of the draft genome identifies six putative β-agarases consist of three GH50, two GH86, and one GH16 in M. elongatus PORT2. Those agarases are clustered at two different contigs. Besides agarases, other genes for D-galactose and 3,6 anhydro-L galactose metabolism, sugar transports and regulatory system are found in the vicinity of the agarases clusters. Despite the ability to utilize agar as a sole carbon sole, PORT2 lacks any putative α-agarase GH117 or GH96. Both are responsible for the cleavage of α-glycosidic bonds in agar. Indeed, several hypothetical proteins are in the neighborhood of the agarase gene clusters in M. elongatus PORT2. They probably could have a function as the alternative machinery or pathway for agar monomerization that needs clarification in future research work. Four recombinant β-agarases from PORT2; AgaA50, AgaB50, AgaC50, and AgaF16A have been successfully overexpressed in E.coli and characterized. The AgaA50 and AgaC50 exhibit metal-dependent activity. They perform exo-agarolytic modes and generates neoagarobiose (NA2). The AgaB50 can act as endo-and exo-β-agarase without any additional activator and produces neoagarohexaose (NA6), neoagarotetraose (NA4), and NA2. AgaF16 produces NA6 and NA4. The enzyme shows pure endo-catalytic action which thiol agents positively affect its activity. The synergetic reaction of AgaF16A and AgaA50 converts Indonesian Gelidium agar into NA2 and Gracilaria agar into modified NA2. The modified NA2 from Gracilaria agar could promise new potential bioactivity that is different from agarose-derived NA2 due to the presence of additional side chains on the saccharide backbone. The NA6, NA4, and NA2 products from agarose have shown potential pharmaceutical applications such as immunomodulator, anti-tumor, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, and moisturizer. Despite being isolated from a mesophilic marine bacterium, the recombinant agarases from M. elongatus PORT2 are active at 50 °C and pH between 6.5 to 8. They maintain more than 75% of their activities even after 1 h preincubation at 50 °C, except for AgaC50. Their thermostability gives advantages for the effective biocatalytic conversion of agar because the substrate is more accessible at mild pH and the temperature above the sol-gel condition (> 40 °C).:Contents 1. Introduction 1 1.1. Motivation and Scientific Goals 1 1.2. Literature Review 3 2. Materials and Methods 12 2.1. Materials 12 2.2. Methods 13 3. Agarolytic Bacterium Microbulbifer elongatus PORT2 22 3.1. Results 22 3.2. Discussion 28 4. Genome Profiling for In Silico Elucidation of the Agarolytic System 32 4.1. Results 32 4.2. Discussion 41 5. Recombinant Agarases from Microbulbifer elongatus PORT2 44 5.1. Results 44 5.2. Discussion 71 6. Conclusions and Outlooks 78 References 81 Appendices 97 Acknowledgements 110

La transcétolase (TK, EC 2.2.1.1) est une enzyme catalysant la formation de cétoses de configuration D-thréo à partir d’aldéhydes α-hydroxylés (2R), par formation stéréospécifique d’une liaison C-C. L’objectif de ces travaux est d’inverser l’énantiosélectivité de cette enzyme par ingénierie afin d’obtenir des cétoses L-érytho (recherchés pour leurs applications potentielles dans les domaines pharmaceutique et/ou nutritionnel) à partir d’aldéhydes α-hydroxylés (2S). Dans ce but, une TK thermostable (mTKgst) issue de la bactérie thermophile Geobacillus stearothermophillus a d’abord été identifiée et produite. L’étude de sa structure tridimensionnelle a permis d’identifier deux résidus du site actif ayant un rôle potentiel dans l’inversion de son énantiosélectivité : Leu382 et Asp470. Des banques demTKgst mutées ont alors été créées, selon deux stratégies : rationnelle et semi-rationnelle. La première a consisté à muter les deux résidus sélectionnés par mutagenèse par saturation de site, tandis que la seconde a consisté à modifier deux séquences de cinq résidus contigus à aux positions clés, selon la mutagenèse par cassette. Afin d’identifier les mTKgst mutées d’intérêt, un test de criblage à haut-débit a été mis au point, basé sur le suivi pH-métrique de la réaction en présence de rouge de phénol. A l’issue du criblage, le variant mTKgst-L382D/D470S a été mis en évidence. Son activité vis-à-vis d’un aldéhyde modèle de configuration (2S) a été augmentée d’un facteur 5 par rapport à l’enzyme sauvage et la perte de l’énantiosélectivité vis-à-vis desaldéhydes (2R) a été confirmée. / Transketolase (TK, EC 2.2.1.1) catalyzes the formation of D-threo ketoses from (2R)-α-hydroxyaldehydes by the stereospecific formation of a C-C bond. Our aim was to invert the enantioselectivity of TK by protein engineering in order to obtain L-erytho ketoses (sought after for their potential pharmaceutical and/or nutritional applications) from (2S)-α-hydroxyaldehydes. For that purpose, a thermostable TK from thermophilic bacterium Geobacillus stearothermophilus (mTKgst) has been identified and overexpressed. After the study of the 3D-structure of mTKgst, two residues located in its active site (Leu382 and Asp470) were selected as mutation targets for the inversion of the enzyme’s enantioselectivity. Both rational and semi-rational approaches were considered for the construction of the mutant mTKgst libraries. In the former, the two residues were modified by site-saturation mutagenesis. In the latter, short sequences of five amino acids, neighboring target ones, were modified using a cassette mutagenesis technique. A novel continuous pH-based assay has been developed for the high-throughput screening of the mTKgst libraries, using phenol red as pH indicator. The screening revealed mTKgst-L382D/D470S as the top mutant, showing a 5-fold activity improvement towards a model (2S)-hydroxyaldehyde and the loss of enantioselectivity towards the (2R)-aldehyde.

La transcétolase thermostable de Geobacillus stearothermophilus (TKgst, EC 2.2.1.1) permet de synthétiser efficacement à haute température des cétoses à 4, 5 et 6 atomes de carbone de configuration d-thréo (3S, 4R), par formation stéréosélective d’une liaison C-C, à partir d’aldéhydes α-hydroxylés (2R) à courte chaîne. L’objectif de ces travaux est d’utiliser la TKgst à 60°C pour gagner en efficacité et étendre son spectre de substrats à de nouveaux donneurs et accepteurs par Evolution dirigée, selon une approche semi-rationnelle, basée sur la mutagenèse par saturation de site. Ainsi, à l’issue du criblage des banques générées, les TKgst mutées les plus performantes (L382D/D470S, L191I, L382F/F435Y, R521Y/H462N et R521V/S385D/H462S) ont été sélectionnées pour leurs activités spécifiques supérieures à celle de la TKgst sauvage (gain de 3,3 à 5) vis-à-vis d’aldéhydes α-hydroxylés (2S) et d’aldéhydes α-hydroxylés (2R) à longue chaîne polyhydroxylée (C5-C6). La TKgst sauvage, ainsi que ces TKgst mutées performantes ont permis d’obtenir, à 60°C, onze cétoses, dont neuf de configuration l-érythro (3S, 4S) à 5 à 6 atomes de carbone et de configuration d-thréo (3S, 4R) de 4 à 8 atomes de carbone d’intérêt biologique, avec de très bons rendements, quatre étant inaccessibles avec les TKs microbiennes utilisées jusqu’alors. D’autres TKgst mutées ont par ailleurs conduit à une amélioration significative de l’activité de la TKgst vis-à-vis d’aldéhydes aliphatiques et aromatiques, mais également vis-à-vis d’un nouveau substrat donneur, l’acide pyruvique et d’analogues, ouvrant le champs des applications aux 1-désoxycétoses. De plus, ces travaux ont permis de développer un procédé multi-enzymatique innovant et éco-comptatible, dans lequel les substrats donneurs et accepteurs de la TKgst sont générés par voie enzymatique, via l’utilisation d’une transaminase ou d’une d-aminoacide oxydase et d’une aldolase, à partir de composés naturels et peu coûteux. Cette stratégie pourra être appliquée aux TKgst mutées, afin d’accéder efficacement et à moindre coût, à d’autres cétoses rares hautement valorisables. / Thermostable transketolase from Geobacillus stearothermophilus (TKgst, EC 2.2.1.1) catalyzes efficiently the synthesis of d-threo (3S, 4R) ketoses having 4, 5 and 6 carbon atoms, by the stereoselective formation of a new C-C bond, from short chain (2R)-α-hydroxylated aldehydes. The aim of this work is to use TKgst at 60°C, in order to increase reaction rates and to broad its substrate scope to new donors and acceptors by Directed Evolution, according to a semi-rationnal approach, based on site saturation mutagenesis. Thus, the screening of the libraries led to TKgst variants (L382D/D470S, L191I, L382F/F435Y, R521Y/H462N and R521V/S385D/H462S) having significantly improved specific activities towards (2S)-α-hydroxylated aldehydes and (2R)-α-hydroxylated aldehydes having a long polyhydroxylated chain (C5-C6), compared to wild type TKgst (3,3 to 5-fold increased activity). Wild-type TKgst as well as these TKgst variants were used, at 60°C, to obtain eleven, including nine l-erythro (3S, 4S) ketoses having 5 and 6 carbon atoms and d-threo (3S, 4R) ketoses having from 4 to 8 carbon atoms of biological interest, with good yields, four being inaccessible using common TK sources. Besides, other TKgst variants led to significantly improved activities towards hydrophobic aldehydes and towards a new donor substrate, pyruvic acid and derivatives, extending TKgst product scope to 1-deoxyketoses. In addition, a multienzymatic innovative and environmentally friendly process, in which TKgst substrates are generated through enzymatic pathways, using a transaminase or a d-aminoacid oxidase and an aldolase, from non-expensive and natural compounds was developed, in the presence of wild-type TKgst and will be able to be applied to TKgst variants, in order to synthesize efficiently and at lower cost, other highly valuable rare ketoses.