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Metal additive manufacturing can be used for producing complex and functional components in the aerospace industry. This thesis deals with the process-structure-property relationships in selective laser melting of three aerospace alloys: Invar 36, stainless steel 316L, and Ti-6Al-4V. These alloys are weldable but hard to machine, which make them good candidates for the selective laser melting process. Invar 36 has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion because of its nickel concentration of 36% and stainless steel 316L contains 16-18% chromium that gives the alloy a corrosion resistance property. Ti-6Al-4V offers high strength-to-weight ratio, high biocompatibility, and outstanding corrosion resistance. Any changes in the chemical composition of these materials could affect their performance during application. In this thesis, a full factorial design of experiments is formulated to study a wide range of laser process parameters. The bulk density, tensile mechanical properties, fractography, microstructure, material composition, material phases, coefficient of thermal expansion, magnetic dipole moments, and residual stresses of the parts produced are experimentally investigated. An optimum process window has been suggested for each material based on experimental work. The thermal cycle, residual stresses, and part distortions are examined using a thermo-mechanical finite element model. The model predicts the residual stress and part distortion after build plate removal. The thesis introduces two laser energy densities for each material: brittle-ductile transition energy density, ET, and critical laser energy density, EC. Below the brittle-ductile transition energy density, the parts exhibited void formation, low density, and brittle fracture. Above the critical energy density, the parts showed vaporization of some alloying elements that have low boiling temperatures. Additionally, real-time measurements were taken using a pyrometer and a high-speed camera during the selective laser melting process. The trends found in the numerical results agree with those found experimentally. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

No / Transient liquid phase (TLP) brazing of Mg–AZ31 alloy and Ti–6Al–4V alloy was performed using double Ni and Cu sandwich foils. Two configurations were tested; first, Mg–AZ31/Cu–Ni/Ti–6Al–4V and second, Mg–AZ31/Ni–Cu/Ti–6Al–4V. The effect of set-up configuration of the foils on microstructural developments, mechanical properties and mechanism of joint formation was examined. The results showed that different reaction layers formed inside the joint region depending on the configuration chosen. The formation of e phase (Mg), r (CuMg2), d (Mg2Ni) and Mg3AlNi2 was observed in both configurations. Maximum shear strength obtained was 57 MPa for Mg–AZ31/Ni–Cu/Ti–6Al–4V configuration and in both configurations, the increase in bonding time resulted in a decrease in joint strength to 13 MPa. The mechanism of joint formation includes three stages; solid state diffusion, dissolution and widening of the joint, and isothermal solidification. / The authors would like to acknowledge The German Jordanian University (GJU), and NSERC Canada for the financial support for this research.

Laser metal deposition (LMD) offers a unique combination of process flexibility, time savings, and reduced cost in producing titanium alloy components. The current challenge in processing titanium alloys using LMD methods is understanding the complex microstructure evolution as a part is fabricated layer by layer. The current work focuses on the characterization, thermal, and microstructural modeling of multilayered Ti-6Al-4V deposits. A thermal model has been developed using finite difference techniques to predict the thermal history of LMD processes. A microstructure model that predicts the alpha phase fraction and morphology evolution was constructed to quantify the effect of thermal cycling on the as-deposited microstructure evolution. Alpha dissolution and growth are modeled assuming one-dimensional plate dissolution according to a parabolic rate law, and a Johnson-Mehl-Avrami-Kolmorgorov (JMAK) nucleation and growth model, respectively. Alpha morphology (colony-alpha and basketweave-alpha) evolution is tracked using a simplistic approach. Characterization of the deposit has shown that a complex microstructure evolves consisting of a two distinct regions: a transient region of undeveloped microstructure and a characteristic layer that is periodically repeated throughout the deposit. The transient region contains a fine basketweave and colony-alpha morphology. The characteristic layer contains a two phase mixture of alpha+beta, with the alpha phase exhibits regions of colony-alpha (layer band) and basketweave-alpha morphology. The different regions of microstructural contrast in the deposit are associated with thermal cycling. The thermal model results show that a heat affected zone defined by the beta transus extends approximately 3 layers into the deposit. The phase fraction model predicts the greatest variation in microstructural evolution to occur in a layer n after the deposition of layer n+3. The results of the morphology model show that increased amounts of colony-alpha form near the top of a characteristic layer. It follows that a layer band (colony-alpha region) forms as a result of heating a region of material to a peak temperature just below the beta transus, where a large amount of primary-alpha dissolves. Upon cooling, colony-alpha forms intragranularly. The coupled thermal and microstructure models offer a way to quantitatively map microstructure during LMD processing of Ti-6Al-4V. / Ph. D.

Selective laser melting (SLM) has been shown to be an attractive manufacturing route for the production of ??/?? titanium alloys, and in particular Ti-6Al-4V. A thorough understanding of the relationship between the process, microstructure and mechanical properties of the components produced by this technology is however crucial for the establishment of SLM as an alternative manufacturing route. The purpose of the present study is thus to determine the microstructure evolution, crystallographic texture and the mechanical properties of SLM Ti-6Al-4V. The effect of several processing parameters on the density and the microstructure of the SLM samples were initially investigated. It was found that different sets of process parameters can be used to fabricate near fully dense components. It was found that the samples built using the optimised process window consist exclusively of ????? martensitic phase precipitated from prior ?? columnar grains. It was observed that the ?? grain solidification is influenced by the laser scan strategy and that the ?? phase has a strong <001> texture along its grain growth direction. The ????? martensitic laths that originate from the parent ?? grains precipitate according to the Burgers orientation relationship. It was found that ????? laths clusters from the same ?? grain have a specific misorientation that minimise the local shape strain. Texture inheritance across successive deposited layers was also observed and discussed in relation to various variant selection mechanisms. The mechanical properties of as-built and stress relieved SLM Ti-6Al-4V built using the same optimised process parameters were then investigated. It was found that the build orientation affects the tensile properties, and in particular the ductility of the samples. Samples built perpendicularly to the building direction showed higher ductility than those built in the vertical orientation. It was also observed that a stress relief heat treatment was beneficial to the mechanical properties of SLM Ti-6Al-4V. The ductility of the stress relieved samples was indeed higher than those found in the as-built condition. It was found that the predominant fracture mode during tensile testing is inter-granular. In terms of high-cycle fatigue, it was found that SLM Ti-6Al-4V is comparable to HIPed cast Ti-6Al-4V but it has a significantly lower fatigue resistance than that of wrought and annealed alloys. It was observed that porosity and the elongated prior ?? grain boundaries decrease substantially the fatigue life of the components. Cracks propagate either by fatigue striation or ductile tearing mechanisms. Using alternative laser scan strategies it was possible to control the microstructure of the as-built samples. It was observed that the laser scan vector length influences several microstructural features, such as the width of the prior ?? grains and the thickness of the ????? laths. It was found that re-melting the same layer has instead little effect on the microstructure. A novel laser scan strategy characterised by much lower laser power and scan speed than those typically used in SLM enabled finally to fabricate SLM Ti-6Al-4V with a microstructure close to that of conventionally manufactured Ti-6Al-4V. This study investigates for the first time the crystallographic texture evolution in Ti-6Al-4V manufactured by SLM. Further, this research presents for the first time the effect of the characteristic microstructure and crystallographic texture on the mechanical properties and fracture of SLM Ti-6Al-4V. Lastly, for the first time this research shows examples of microstructural control during the SLM fabrication of the same alloy using long laser dwell times.

Titanium alloys are employed in many advanced engineering applications due to their exceptional properties, i.e., a high strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion resistance, and high temperature strength. The performance of titanium alloys is known to be strongly affected by its inherent microstructure, which forms as a result of its thermo-mechanical processing. These microstructures produce compromise relationships between beneficial and detrimental effects on the alloy's performance. To study these structure-property relationships, two distinct crystal plasticity algorithms have been calibrated to data acquired from cyclic deformation experiments performed on three different Ti microstructures: (1) Ti-6Al-4V beta-annealed , (2) Ti-18 solution-treated, age-hardened (STA), and (3) Ti-18 beta-annealed, slow-cooled, age-hardened (BASCA). The calibrated models have been utilized to simulate fatigue loading of variant microstructures to investigate the influence of mean grain size, crystallographic texture, and phase volume fraction. The driving force for fatigue crack nucleation and propagation is quantified through the calculation of relevant fatigue indicator parameters (FIPs) and radial correlation functions are employed to study the correlation between favorably oriented slip systems and the extreme value FIP locations. The computed results are utilized to observe fatigue performance trends associated with changes to key microstructural attributes.

The core aim of this research project was to improve understanding of the effects of microstructure and crystallographic texture on the high strain rate plastic deformation behaviour of the industrially important Titanium alloy, Ti-6Al-4V. To facilitate this study, four rolled plates of Ti-6Al-4V, with varying thermo-mechanical processing histories, were provided by TIMET Corp., the world’s largest supplier of Titanium product. To determine the nature of each plate’s microstructure and the crystallographic texture of the dominant α phase, the four Ti-6Al-4V plates were microstructurally characterised using techniques such as optical microscopy and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). To determine the effects of the measured microstructures and textures on the strain rate dependent plastic deformation behaviour of the four Ti-6Al-4V plates, uniaxial compression and tension tests were carried out in the three orthogonal material orientations at quasi-static (10^-3 s^-1) and high strain rates (10^3 s^-1) using a standard electro-mechanical test device and split-Hopkinson pressure bars (SHPB), respectively. To provide further understanding of the effects of microstructure and texture on the plastic deformation behaviour of Ti-6Al-4V, this time under complex impact loading conditions, the classic Taylor impact experiment was adapted to include an optical measurement and geometry reconstruction technique. A novel experimental setup was designed that consists of an ultra-high speed camera and mirror arrangement, allowing the Taylor impact specimen to be viewed from multiple angles during the experiment. Using the previously mentioned optical measurement and geometry reconstruction technique, it was then possible to gain valuable, previously unobtainable, data on the deformation history of Taylor impact specimens in-situ, such as the major/minor axes of the anisotropically deforming elliptical specimen cross-sections as a function of time and axial position, true strain as a function of time and axial position, and the true strain rate as a function of axial position. The technique was verified by testing a specimen cut from the in-plane material orientation of a clock-rolled high purity Zirconium plate. The output measurements from a post-deformation image frame were compared with measurements of the recovered specimen made using a coordinate measurement machine (CMM), with analysis showing excellent agreement between the two techniques. The experiment was then carried out on specimens cut from the two orthogonal in-plane material orientations of one of the four Ti-6Al-4V plates. Analysis of the data from these experiments gave significant insight into the plastic deformation behaviour of macroscopically textured Ti-6Al-4V under complex impact loading. Recovered Ti-6Al-4V specimens from the outlined Taylor impact experiments were then sectioned along specific planes and microstructurally characterised using EBSD, with comparisons made between the pre and post-deformation microstructures. From this analysis, and the previously discussed geometry reconstruction technique, insight was gained into the effects of micro-texture on the general anisotropic plastic deformation behaviour of Ti-6Al- 4V plate materials and in particular the role of micro-texture on the formation of deformation twins. Finally, the understanding gained from these experiments, and a detailed review of the literature, was used to inform a novel, physically based material modelling framework, capable of capturing the effects of microstructure and texture on the strain rate and temperature dependent plastic deformation behaviour of Ti-6Al-4V. The model was implemented in the computational software package, MATLAB, and verified by comparison with the mechanical characterisation results from one of the Ti-6Al-4V plates. A number of frameworks are discussed for implementing the new Ti-6Al-4V model within finite element (FE) analysis software packages, such as ABAQUS, LS-DYNA and DEFORM. It is hoped that the new Ti-6Al-4V model can be used to optimise the design of Ti-6Al-4V components and structures for impact loading scenarios.