A engenharia de tecidos está conceituada na cultura prévia de células com proteínas morfogenéticas em Corpos Porosos Estruturais - CPE(s) (Scaffolds) de biomateriais, que simulam a matriz extracelular, oferecendo suporte para o crescimento celular na formação do tecido maduro. Este trabalho estuda a manufatura de corpos-de-prova em alumina através do método de incorporação sistematizada de partículas de sacarose e naftaleno como agentes orgânicos fugitivos formadores de poros, a fim de se obter porosidade específica quanto ao tamanho, volume, morfologia, interconectividade e reprodutibilidade de processo. Optou-se pela cerâmica de alumina devido às suas características universais de manufatura e baixo custo. Os CPE(s) foram caracterizados qualitativa e quantitativamente quanto à morfologia e macroestrutura através de microscopia eletrônica de varredura - MEV e porosimetria de mercúrio e quanto à densidade e porosidade aparente através do teste por imersão (Arquimedes). Verificou-se a viabilidade dos métodos de manufatura empregados na obtenção das características desejáveis para a aplicação proposta. / Tissue Engineering is concerned with the previous culture of cells with morphogenetics proteins grown factors in biomaterials Scaffolds (Corpos Porosos Estruturais - CPE(s)) which simulate the extra cellular matrix, offering support for the cellular growth for the formation of the mature tissue. This work studies the manufacture of alumina samples by the method of systematized incorporation of sugar cane and naphthalene particles as fugitive organic agents for pores generation aiming the obtaining of specific porosities with size to volume relationship, morphology, connective porous and process repeatability. Alumina ceramic was selected due to its universal manufacture characteristics and its low cost. Scaffolds were characterized qualitative and quantitatively to the porous morphology and macrostructure using scanning electronic microscopy - SEM and Mercury porosimetry measurement and the relationship to apparent density and porosity using immersion Archimedes test. The viability of the selected manufacture methods was fulfilled by the obtaintion of desirable characteristics for the proposed application.

A odontologia moderna, mesmo usando as suas técnicas mais primorosas, na prática, ainda recupera a perda dental com implantes metálicos recobertos por coroas protéticas. Há um empenho coletivo dos cientistas em criar técnicas de desenvolvimento dental in vitro na busca por maneiras de recuperar, de maneira biológica, a ausência dental. Já é possível criar estruturas similares a dentes a partir de células-tronco de origem dental (polpa de dentes permanentes e decíduos) e não dental (células-tronco embrionárias, células-tronco da medula óssea e da crista neural) por meio de recombinação dos tecidos epiteliais e mesenquimais de germes dentais. As técnicas de reconstrução tecidual nunca estiveram tão perto do desenvolvimento da terceira dentição mas a ciência ainda tem muito a aprender no que concerne o estudo da biologia dental e engenharia de tecidos. Não basta saber como um dente se desenvolve; há de se entender como ele interage com o organismo do qual faz ou fará parte. É com esta preocupação que nos propomos a estudar se pode haver uma correlação entre o desenvolvimento do sistema nervoso e vascular de um germe dental transplantado com a posição que ele é implantado e/ou com a presença de tecido ósseo que no leito receptor. Ademais, buscamos saber se o estágio de desenvolvimento do germe dental a ser transplantado pode influenciar a formação de tecido nervoso e vascular na polpa dental ou não. Nossos resultados revelaram que o local do sítio do implante influencia diretamente o desenvolvimento dental e que isto é tempo dependente. A vascularização e a reinervação da polpa dental nos espécimes implantados nas tíbias é mais semelhante ao grupo controle que os implantados nos rins e isto independe da posição de implantação dental. Entretanto, a polpa dental dos germes implantados nos rins parece estar comumente mais sadia, conter mais odontoblastos viáveis e ser capaz de produzir tecidos mineralizados como a osteodentina. / Contemporary dentistry, even using modern techniques, still deal with missing teeth using metal implants coated by prosthetic crowns. However, there is a worldwide effort to develop a biotooth using in vitro techniques. In this way it is already possible to generate structures similar to teeth using recombination of odontogenic and non odontogenic cells in tissue engineering experiments. The transplant of the recombined cells into a host is a necessary and major step to obtain the biotooth. In this context, at the same time that the development of an appropriate sensorial and vascular system in the biotooh is required, there are many unclear questions about it. Therefore, herein we intend to analyze (I) whether may exist a correlation between the stage of development and vascular and nervous re-growth in the dental pulp after tooth transplantation; (II) if the absence or presence of bone could influence this processes or (III) if the position of implantation could change the vascular and/or nervous development in the transplanted tooth. Our results showed that the site of implantation directly alter tooth development modifying morphogenesis and expression of different vascular, perivascular and neural markers in a time dependant way. The re-growth of the vascular and neural tissue on samples transplanted to the tibia is more similar to the control group than the kidney ones and it is non dependant of the position of implantation. However, the pulp tissue of the samples transplanted under the kidney capsule seemed to be healthier as they were capable of producing mineralized tissue such as osteodentin and still had live odontoblasts.

O uso de células tronco já é uma realidade em algumas áreas da Medicina, porém o mesmo não se aplica para a Odontologia, que segue utilizando materiais artificiais para substituir tecidos dentais perdidos. Desde 2000, quando Gronthos e colaboradores identificaram células-tronco na polpa de dentes permanentes, os estudos avançaram para que, num futuro breve, essas células possam ser de fato aplicadas para regenerar tecidos dentais, com destaque para a endodontia, onde o uso dessas células parece ser mais eminente. Dessa forma, esse trabalho procurou analisar a co-participação de células humanas transplantadas e células do hospedeiro em um modelo de engenharia pulpar. Para tanto, células de papila apical, enriquecidas ou não para o marcador CD146, foram transplantadas em câmaras pulpares despulpadas preenchidas com colágeno. Dois modelos animais foram utilizados, sendo um modelo transgênico para o gene GFP e outro imunocomprometido pela aplasia do timo (nude). Os resultados foram analisados nos dias 14 e 21 pós-transplante das amostras em cápsula renal. Nas amostras GFP realizou-se imunofluorescência para o marcador anti-GFP, com o objetivo de identificar as células do hospedeiro, enquanto nas amostras nude utilizou-se o marcador lâmina A para identificar as células humanas transplantadas. Nas análises morfológicas de todas as coroas transplantadas houve a formação de um tecido conjuntivo frouxo de celularidade variável, com a presença de vasos bem formados com eritrócitos em seu interior, inclusive nas coroas que receberam somente colágeno. Somente as amostras que receberam células houve a formação de matriz mineralizada no espaço pulpar, mas nos tempos experimentais analisados não foi possível visualizar as células humanas. Nas amostras nude, o marcador lâmina A foi negativo para todos os grupos que receberam transplante de células. Nas amostras GFPs, o marcador anti-GFP foi positivo na totalidade das células em todas as amostras estudadas. A partir disso concluiu-se que as células-tronco humanas de papila apical transplantadas apesar de terem desempenhado alguma função fisiológica, não foram identificadas após 14 e 21 dias e o tecido neoformado no interior da câmara pulpar era proveniente do hospedeiro. Adicionalmente, concluímos que não é necessário o transplante de células para a formação de um tecido conjuntivo frouxo no interior da câmara pulpar. / The use of stem cells is already a reality in some areas of Medicine, but the same does not apply for Dentistry, which keeps on using artificial materials to replace lost dental tissues. Since 2000, when Gronthos and coleagues identified stem cells in the pulp of permanent teeth, studies advanced so that, in the near future, these cells may actually be applied to regenerate dental tissues, especially in endodontics, in which the use of these cells seems to be more imminent. Thereby, this study sought to examine the co-participation of transplanted human cells and host cells in a model of dental pulp engineering. For this, apical papilla cells enriched or not with CD146 marker, were transplanted into decelluarized pulp chambers (empty crowns) filled with collagen. Two animal models were used, a transgenic model for the GFP gene and an immunocompromised by thymus aplasia (nude). The results were analyzed on days 14 and 21 after transplantation of samples into renal capsule. In the GFP samples immunofluorescence was performed for the anti-GFP marker in order to identify host cells, while in the nude samples the lamina A marker was used to identify the transplanted human cells. In the morphological analysis of all transplanted crowns there was formation of a loose connective tissue of variable cellularity, with the presence of well-formed vessels with erythrocytes inside, including in the crowns that received only collagen. Osteodentine was formed in the pulp chamber only in the samples that received cell, but after the wait time was not possible to visualize the human cells. In the nude samples the Lamina A marker was negative for all groups transplanted with cells. In the GFPs samples, the anti-GFP marker was positive for all cells in this group. We concluded that it was not necessary to use transplanted cells to form a connective tissue inside the pulp chamber and although transplanted human stem cells from apical papilla played some physiological function, after 14 and 21 days of transplantation, they were no longer present in the tissue newly formed by the host.

A l’heure actuelle, les alliages à bases de titane sont les matériaux les plus utilisés en implantologie osseuse. Les procédés émergents de fabrication additive, tel que la fusion par faisceau d’électrons (EBM), permettent de fabriquer des structures architecturées sur-mesure en titane. Dans les cas cliniques difficiles, il est nécessaire de stimuler activement les cellules souches osseuses pour qu’elles produisent de l’os. Les protéines osseuses morphogénétiques (BMP-2, BMP-7) ont cette capacité d’ostéo-induction et sont utilisées en clinique. Cependant, leur délivrance par matrice de collagène est très mal contrôlée. Des revêtements de surface à base de polymères naturels, tels que la poly(L-lysine) et l’acide hyaluronique (PLL/HA), peuvent former des films biomimétiques servant de nanoréservoir pour ces protéines. L’objectif de cette thèse était de développer un implant innovant constitué de structures 3D en titane à la fois architecturées et ostéo-inductrices. Pour cela, des structures 3D poreuses en alliage de titane (Ti-6Al-4V) constituées de cellules cubiques ont été construites par EBM. La porosité a été bien contrôlée avec une différence par rapport aux modèles CAO de moins de 1%. La BMP-7 a été chargée et quantifiée dans les films biomimétiques. La capacité d’ostéo-induction des films a été évaluée avec des cellules souches mésenchymateuses de souris par leur expression de la phosphatase alcaline. L’expression de cette enzyme a augmenté de façon dose-dépendante avec la dose de BMP-7 initialement chargée. Le dépôt du film ostéo-inducteur sur les structures 3D architecturées a été caractérisé par microscopies optique et électronique. Les cellules souches cultivées au sein des structures 3D bioactives se différencient en cellules osseuses démontrant ainsi leur capacité ostéo-inductrice sur le court terme in vitro. Des tests préliminaires in vivo sont actuellement réalisés pour tester ces structures 3D bioactives dans un modèle fémoral de défaut osseux chez le rat. / To date, titanium-based alloys (Ti) remain the most used implantable materials for load-bearing applications. Emerging additive manufacturing techniques such as electron beam melting (EBM) enable to custom-build architectured scaffolds of controlled macroporosity. In very difficult clinical situations, potent bioactive signals are needed to boost stem cells: osteoinductive molecules such as bone morphogenetic proteins (BMP-2) are currently used for this purpose. However, one of their limitations is their inappropriate delivery with collagen sponges. Biomimetic surface coatings made of the biopolymers poly(L-lysine) and hyaluronic acid, (PLL/HA) polyelectrolyte films, have recently been engineered as nanoreservoirs for BMP proteins. The aim of this PhD thesis was to develop architectured and osteoinductive 3D titanium-based scaffolds as innovative synthetic bone grafts. To this end, we used the EBM additive manufacturing technique to engineer porous scaffolds with cubit unit-cells. Their surface was coated with biomimetic films containing the bone morphogenetic protein 7 (BMP-7). The porosity was well controlled with a difference from CAD models of less than 1%. The osteoinductive capacity of BMP-7 loaded films was assessed using murine mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) by quantifying their alkaline phosphatase (ALP) expression, which increased in a dose-dependent manner. The coating of the 3D architectured scaffolds by the bioactive film was characterized using optical and electron microscopy techniques. Finally, the 3D architectured scaffolds coated with BMP-7-loaded films were proved to be osteoinductive at the early stage in vitro. Preliminary experiments are currently done to assess their performance in an in vivo model of a critical size femoral bone defect in rat.

The extracellular matrix (ECM) is secreted by the host tissue and is an important key for mechanisms of cell responses. The main properties of the ECM materials include biodegradability, biocompatibility, and nanostructured in a 3D fibre network. In addition, ECM is composed of important molecules like growth factors, glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), collagens, fibronectin, and lamin, while final composition depends on the native tissue. We have selected for this study ECMs from cortical bone (B-ECM) and pericardium (P-ECM) tissue. These ECMs were digested by collagenase, pepsin and trypsin. Each of these digested ECMs was used to produce PLLA-ECM based electrospun scaffolds by two different methodologies (1) non-crosslinked (NCLK) hybrid electrospun scaffolds composed of PLLA and digested ECMs and (2) PLLA-collagen electrospun scaffolds crosslinked with digested ECMs (CLK scaffolds). This research proposes the characterization of the digestion promoted by collagenase, pepsin and trypsin on the ECMs, followed by the evaluation of the potential of the digested ECMs and of the PLLA-ECM scaffolds for bone regeneration. The proteinaceous mixture, produced from the ECM digestion, had compositions, which were dependent on the type of ECM, and on the enzymatic treatment, as shown by protein quantification, GAGs quantification, TGA, SDS-page and TPEF-SHG. All the results point to an extensive digestion caused by collagenase and pepsin and a milder digestion caused by trypsin. The digested ECMs were incorporated into nanofibrous scaffolds, and the products were characterized by SEM, TGA, DSC and TPEF-SHG. The porous nanofibrous mesh from non-crosslinked scaffolds exhibited fibres without beads and a uniform diameter. However, the crosslinked scaffolds presented non-organized agglomerates around the fibres making a less porous surface. TGA and DSC suggest the incorporation of the ECMs on the scaffolds. However, the distribution of the protein on the polymer was mostly dependent on the incorporation method, as showed by TPEF-SHG. To access the biomaterial ability for bone regeneration, bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMMSCs) were cultured on the scaffolds over 21 days. Osteogenic markers such as ALP activity, mineral nodule formation by ARS staining, col1a2 immunostaining, and gene expression were analysed to access how the materials could induce BMMSCs osteodifferentiation. Comparing NCLK to CLK scaffolds the key factor for osteogenesis is the release of soluble factors, showing NCLK scaffolds with a higher ability to induce mineralization than CLK scaffolds. However, when comparing the effect of the enzymatic digestion on the mineralization of the scaffolds over the days, it is possible to establish that the effect of the enzymatic treatment is also related to the type of ECM. Despite all those differences, some PLLA-ECM scaffolds exhibited potential to induce earlier mineralization, observed by the analysis of bglap, runX2, Osx, sparc and col1a2 genes as osteogenic markers. / A matriz extracelular (ECM) é secretada pela células no tecido nativo e reúne propriedades chave para respostas celulares. Entre suas principais propriedades destacam-se: biodegradabilidade, biocompatibilidade e nanoestruturada tridimensionalmente. Além disso, é rica em sinalizadores celulares tais como: fatores de crescimento, glicosaminaglicanas (GAGs), colágeno, fibronectina e laminina, no entanto sua composição depende do tecido na qual se encontra. Para este estudo, foram selecionadas ECMs provenientes de osso cortical e de pericárdio. Estas ECMs foram digeridas por colagenase, pepsina e tripsina. Cada um dos produtos de digestão foi utlizado para a produção de suportes eletrofiados de PLLA-ECM, utilizando-se dois diferentes métodos de incorporação, (1) Suportes eletrofiados híbridos de PLLA-ECM obtidos a partir da eletrofiação da co-solução em 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexafluor-2-propanol, e (2) imobilização das ECM digeridas sobre suportes eletrofiados de PLLA-colágeno. O presente trabalho propõe-se a caracterizar as ECMs digeridas e a avaliar o potencial dos suportes eletrofiados de PLLA-ECM para a regeneração óssea. A mistura proteinácea obtida a partir da digestão das ECMs, mostrou que a sua composição é dependentes do tipo de ECM e da digestão enzimática, resultado este confirmado através da quantificação de proteínas, quantificação de glicosaminoglicanas, TGA, SDS-page e TPEF-SHG. A partir destes, foi observada que a colagenase é a enzima que promove a maior degradação das ECMs, enquanto que a tripsina promove uma degradação em menor escala. As matrizes digeridas foram incorporadas no material nanoestruturado, estes foram caraterizados por SEM, TGA, DSC e TPEF-SHG. Observou-se que a malha eletrofiada a partir da co-solução de PLLA-ECM exibiu a formação de fibras de diâmetro uniforme, enquanto que os suportes imobilizados apresentaram a formação de aglomerados sólidos ao redor das fibras, originando uma malha menos porosa. As análises de TGA e DSC confirmaram a incoporação das ECMs nas malhas eletrofiadas, e através da técnica de TPEF-SHG observou-se a distribuição das proteinas no polímero. O potencial dos materiais para a regeneração óssea foi avaliado através da cultura de células tronco mesenquimais de medula óssea sobre os suportes eletrofiados durante 21 dias, e em seguida, medidas de ALP, quantificação de coloração com vermelho de alizarina, imunofluorescência com anticorpo col1a2, e expressão de gênica foram analisadas para a avaliação de como os materiais eletrofiados de PLLA-ECM induzem a osteodiferenciação. Comparando-se materiais produzidos por co-solução e os materiais imobilizados foi possível observar que a resposta osteogênica é maior nos materiais híbridos devido a liberação de fatores solúveis dos suportes eletrofiados. No entanto, comparando-se o efeito da digestão enzimática na capacidade de mineralização dos suportes , é possível observar que o efeito da digestão enzimática é dependente do tipo de ECM. Em geral, foi possível observar que os suportes eletrofiados de PLLA-ECM exibem potencial para uso em engenharia de tecidos, em específico, regeneração óssea, uma vez que apresentaram-se regulados o conjunto de genes bglap, RunX2, Osx, sparc e col1a2.

The biodegradability and when functionalised biocompatibility of aliphatic polycarbonates (APCs) makes them an attractive class of materials for biomedical applications such as tissue engineering scaffolds and drug-delivery carriers. One route to accessing a wide-range of well-defined and functional APCs is the controlled ring-opening polymerisation (ROP) of cyclic carbonates. In turn, these would ideally be prepared by the direct coupling of CO2 with diols to give water as the only by-product. In this way, the combination of CO2 and sugar-derived diols draws upon two natural renewable building blocks for the construction of polycarbonates that are anticipated to show good biocompatibility properties. Chapter 2 develops a simple and mild alternative to the traditional use of phosgene derivatives for the synthesis of six-membered cyclic carbonates from 1,3-diols and CO2. DFT calculations highlighted the need to lower both the CO2-insertion and ring-closing kinetic barriers to cyclic carbonate formation. Organic superbase, 1,8- diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undec-7-ene (DBU) enabled the formation of carbonate species at 1 atm CO2 pressure whereas, the introduction of a leaving group strategy lowered the cyclisation barrier. Mechanistic considerations suggested a kinetic preference for ring- closing via a nucleophilic addition-elimination pathway rather than a SN2-like intramolecular cyclisation. Chapter 3 applies the procedure with CO2 to the preparation of a novel monomer from natural sugar, ᴅ-mannose. ROP was carried out via an organocatalytic approach and a preference for head-tail linkages in the polycarbonate backbone indicated by NMR spectroscopy and supported by DFT calculations. Chapter 4 utilises CO2 to invert the natural stereochemistry of sugars and create a thymidine-based monomer. The thermodynamic parameters of the ROP with 1,5,7-triazabicyclo[4.4.0]dec-5-ene (TBD) catalyst are determined and the properties of the polycarbonates investigated to include preliminary cell attachment studies. Finally, chapter 5 details the synthesis of cyclic carbonates from 2- deoxy-ᴅ-ribose and the investigation into the different ROP behaviour of the α- and β- anomers. The ability to tune the polymer properties through copolymerisation with trimethylene carbonate (TMC) is also discussed.

Many congenital skeletal muscle disorders including muscular dystrophies are caused by genetic mutations that lead to a dysfunction in myocytes effectively binding to the extracellular matrix. This leads to a chronic and continuous cycle of breakdown and regeneration of muscle tissue, ultimately resulting in loss of muscle function and patient mortality. Such disorders lack effective clinical treatments and challenge researchers to develop new therapeutics. The current drug development process often yields ineffective therapeutics due to the lack of genetic homology between pre-clinical animal models and humans. In addition current engineered tissue models using human cells fail to properly emulate native muscle morphology and function due to necrotic tissue cores and an abundance undigested ECM protein. Thus, a more precise benchtop model of 3D engineered human muscle tissue could serve as a better platform for translation to a disease model and could better predict candidate drug efficacy during pre- clinical development. This work presents the methodology for generating a high-content system of contiguous skeletal muscle tissue constructs produced entirely from human cells by using a non-adhesive hydrogel micro-molding technique. Subsequent culture and mold modifications confirmed by morphological and contractile protein analysis improve tissue longevity and myocyte maturation. Finally, mechanical strength and contractile force measurements confirmed that such modulations resulted in skeletal muscle microtissues that were more mimetic of human muscle tissue. This cell self-assembly technique yielded tissues approximately 150um in diameter with cell densities approaching that of native muscle. Modifications including seeding pre-differentiated myoblasts and the addition of ECM producing fibroblasts improved both tissue formation efficiency and cell alignment. Further culture modifications including supplementation of the culture medium with 50ug/ml ascorbic acid and 100ng/ml Insulin-like growth factor-1 coupled with a mold redesign that allowed tissue to passively contract during maturation while still remaining anchored under tension further improved ECM production, myogenic differentiation, and long-term longevity in culture. Further confirmation of the culture improvements were demonstrated by increases in mechanical strength and contractile force production. In conclusion, this approach overcomes cell density limitations with exogenous ECM-based methods and provides a platform for producing 3D models of human skeletal muscle by making tissue entirely using cells. Future work will attempt to translate the methodology used for tissue generation and long-term culture to create benchtop models of disease models of skeletal muscle, streamlining pre- clinical benchtop testing to better predict candidate drug efficacy for skeletal muscle diseases and disorders along with elucidating side effects of non-target drugs.

Every year, 400,000 coronary artery bypasses (CABG) are performed in the United States. However, one third of all patients who need a CABG cannot undergo the procedure because of the lack of suitable autologous blood vessels. Both synthetic and tissue engineered vascular grafts have been used clinically for vascular grafts or other surgical applications, but no small- diameter engineered vessels have yet been successfully used for CABG. The success of vascular tissue engineering is strongly dependent on being able to control tissue contractility and extracellular matrix (ECM) production to achieve balance between tissue strength and physiological function. Smooth muscle cells (SMCs), the main contributor of contractility in blood vessels, retain phenotypic plasticity, meaning they possess the ability to switch between a contractile and synthetic phenotype. In 2D culture, a number of biochemical and mechanical cues have been shown to promote the switch to a contractile phenotype in SMCs. However, achieving a stable contractile phenotype in 3D tissue has proven difficult. The work in this dissertation describes an investigation of how passive and dynamic environmental cues influence the smooth muscle phenotype. We studied the effects of substrate modulus in conjunction with changes in cell culture media composition on SMC phenotype in 2D and 3D cultures. Culturing SMCs in a low-serum culture medium resulted in an increase in SMC contractility in 2D cell culture but not in 3D cell-derived tissue. We found that, in SMCs cultured on soft substrates, the ability to modulate SMC phenotype in response to changes in media was diminished. Passively crosslinking the ECM of our cell-derived tissues with genipin resulted in modest increases in elastic modulus, though not enough to observe changes in SMC phenotype. Additionally, we investigated how dynamic cyclic mechanical stretch, in conjunction with cell culture medium, modified SMC contractility in cell and tissue cultures. SMCs increased contractile protein expression when exposed to dynamic stretch in 2D culture, even on soft substrates, which have previously been shown to inhibit phenotypic modulation. In 3D tissue rings, after mechanical stimulation, SMCs became more aligned, the tissue became tougher, and SMCs exhibited a measurable increase in contractile protein expression. In summary, we found that increasing substrate modulus, culturing in low serum cell culture medium, and imparting cyclic mechanical stretch can promote SMC differentiation and cellular alignment, and improve tissue mechanical properties. This information can be used to more accurately recapitulate vascular tissue for use in modeling or in the creation of tissue engineered blood vessels.

Every year over 20,000 [3] people die as a result of being in a fire. Although flames have the biggest visual impact, it is usually the smoke produced by the combustion of natural and synthetic materials that causes more damage and claims more lives. The main constituents of smoke, both the particulate matter as well as the hot and toxic gasses, are devastating to the tracheal and lung tissues. The damage caused to the lung and trachea by inhaling this smoke can increase a fire victim's susceptibility to infectious disease significantly [1]. Between 20% and 50% of people who suffer inhalation injury contract pneumonia due to the weakened status of their body's defenses [2] and between 4,800 and 6,400 [1] people die from either pneumonia or other complications. Despite the importance of the inner-lining of the trachea to a burn victim's health and survival, current treatments consist of keeping the patient in a clean environment, supplying fresh oxygen, keeping the airways open, and letting the patient's body heal itself [1]. This treatment is not so much an active healing mechanism; rather it is a passive means of allowing the body to repair itself. The main goal of this work is to develop a minimally invasive technique that will replace lost cells on the inside surface of the trachea as efficiently as possible, actively healing the patient's injury. Ideally, the patient would receive a single treatment and then make a complete recovery on his or her own. The main challenge lies in delivering an even layer of intact cells to the inner-surface of the trachea in such a manner that they will stay in place and will replace the damaged or missing tissue. The overall approach is to spray a suspension, composed of epithelial cells in an aqueous solution of Pluronic F-127 polymer, onto the trachea using a jet atomizer. Because Pluronic F-127 solutions can be liquids at room temperature but gels at body temperature, the role of the polymer will be to immobilize the cells onto the tracheal surface long enough for them to attach and grow.

Collagen implants are widely used in clinical practice and are an active area of research. The continued development of collagen-based implants often relies on histological techniques to fully evaluate the host response post implantation. These destructive, end-point analyses limit the rate that data can be obtained from samples. Magnetic resonance imaging has the potential to non-invasively monitor the remodeling of collagen scaffolds. In this study, scaffolds prepared from insoluble bovine collagen, with varied and predictable tissue responses were implanted in rats and evaluated using both histological and MRI techniques. Treatment of scaffolds with a carbodiimide crosslinker was found to slow the degradation and cellular infiltration into the scaffolds compared to uncrosslinked scaffolds. Angiogenesis was observed in core regions of crosslinked scaffolds, but not uncrosslinked scaffolds. Conjugation of chondroitin sulfate to the collagen scaffolds in combination with crosslinking improved both the cellular infiltration and angiogenesis compared to uncrosslinked and crosslinked scaffolds. Correlations between histology and MRI analyses showed that statistically significant relationships existed between cellular density, void area, T2 and apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) measurements demonstrating that MRI is sensitive to specific remodeling parameters. Understanding the relationship between histology and MRI parameters may be used to help guide the interpretation of MRI data as well as to reliably detect changes within the implants using the MRI data alone, reducing the need for scaffold harvesting and destructive testing.