The purpose of the study was to determine if there is a difference in mathematics mean scale score growth on the MCT2 mathematics assessment between students taught by national board certified teachers (NBCTs) and those taught by non-NBCTs in a low socioeconomic, high minority, Title I school. For this study, a causal-comparative research design and a statistical analysis procedure of ANCOVA were used to answer two research questions: First, is there a statistically significant difference in mathematics mean scale score growth on the MCT2 mathematics assessment between fourth grade African American and Caucasian students taught by NBCTs and those taught by non-NBCTs, while controlling socioeconomic status and 3rd grade MCT2 mathematics scale scores? Second, is there a statistically significant difference in mathematics mean scale score growth on the MCT2 mathematics assessment between fourth grade students by socioeconomic status based on eligibility for free/reduced or full pay lunch taught by NBCTs and those taught by non-NBCTs, while controlling race and 3rd grade MCT2 mathematics scale scores? The results of the analysis for research question one indicated that there was not a statistically significant difference in mathematics mean score growth on the MCT2 mathematics assessment between students by race taught by NBCTs and those taught by non-NBCT. African American and Caucasian students taught by NBCTs had a comparable mathematics mean scale score growth with African American and Caucasian students taught by non-NBCTs. The results of the analysis for research question two indicated that there was a statistically significant difference in mathematics mean score growth on the MCT2 mathematics assessment between students by socioeconomic status based on eligibility for full pay lunch taught by NBCTs and those students taught by non-NBCTs. Students identified as full pay lunch taught by NBCTs had a higher mathematics mean scale score growth than those students identified as full pay lunch taught by non-NBCTs. Students identified as free/reduced lunch status taught by non-NBCTs had comparable mean scale score growth with those students identified as free/reduced lunch status taught by NBCTs, but not statistically significant.

Poverty is a social context that has direct impact on students' performance since the conditions associated with poverty (brain development, social interactions, nutrition, and emotional environment) all play a role in developmental outcomes. Head Start is an early intervention program designed to address the unique needs of students from poverty. The Head Start Impact Study (DHHS, ACF, 2012) and other research (Lee, Brooks-Gunn, and Schnur, 1988; Ramey and Ramey, 2004) indicate that the academic achievement of low-income students who participated in Head Start is mixed as they move through elementary school. The purpose of the Head Start program is to prepare students with skills so that they begin kindergarten on an even playing field with their more advantaged peers (DHHS, ACF, 2013). Although students who participate in Head Start begin kindergarten with the appropriate readiness skills, initial gains are not maintained as they move through elementary school (Burkham and Lee, 2002). The purpose of this mixed methods study was to examine the effects of the Head Start program as its students move through kindergarten and first grade. In the study, I analyzed data to find relationships between student performance on the Phonological Awareness Literacy Screening (PALS) (University of Virginia, 2010) and classroom practices that led to high achievement. Two Title I schools were studied. PALS scores were analyzed using t-tests, ANOVAs and multiple regressions. Reading performance in second grade was measured using scores from the Developmental Reading Assessment (Beave, 2006). Qualitative data were collected through interviews, focus groups, and document reviews. These data were utilized to make connections between the results of PALS and reading scores and the best practices being used in schools that showed strong results for the kindergarten and first grade students in the study. By triangulating data, I uncovered relationships between best practice strategies being used in high performing schools and achievement of former Head Start enrollees. / Ed. D.

Principals of Title I schools have a responsibility to ensure that all students achieve so that they may graduate on time and are career and college ready (Virginia Department of Education [VDOE], 2022b). This research focused on the principals' instructional leadership practices in elementary and middle Title I schools impacting student achievement. The purpose of this qualitative study was to identify principal instructional leadership practices and their perceived impact on student achievement in elementary and middle Title I schools within a school division in Virginia. The research question was, what are the principal instructional leadership practices and their perceived impact on student achievement in elementary and middle Title I schools within a school division in Virginia as reported by principals, assistant principals, instructional coaches, and teachers? A demographic survey of eight teachers was completed, and one-on-one interviews were conducted with two principals, one assistant principal, and two instructional coaches, and focus interviews held with eight teachers. Data on instructional leadership practices and the perceived impact on student achievement in Title I schools in one school division in Virginia were analyzed. Deductive coding was used for this purpose to determine common themes from the data. Eight major findings were discovered including seven principal instructional leadership practices and the most impactful principal instructional leadership practices. Six of the findings pertain to elementary and middle Title I schools, and two of the findings were specific to elementary Title I schools. The research could provide current and future practitioners in elementary and middle Title I schools and school divisions with principal instructional leadership practices to help improve overall student achievement and close achievement gaps amongst student groups. Practitioners can utilize the study to assist with the professional development (PD) of Title I school principals and for developing principal preparation programs. Researchers might use the study for literature research-based strategies on instructional leadership practices and the perceived impact on student achievement in Title I schools. Whether students are learning face-to-face, blended, or virtual, these practices can be utilized by leaders of Title I schools to ensure that students achieve. / Doctor of Education / Principals of Title I schools have a responsibility to ensure that all students achieve so that they may graduate on time and are career and college ready. This research focused on the principals' instructional leadership practices impacting student achievement in elementary and middle Title I schools. The research question was, what are the principal instructional leadership practices and their perceived impact on student achievement in elementary and middle Title I schools within a school division in Virginia as reported by principals, assistant principals, instructional coaches, and teachers? A demographic survey of eight teachers was completed, and one-on-one interviews were conducted with two principals, one assistant principal, and two instructional coaches, and focus interviews held with eight teachers. The research might benefit current and future practitioners in elementary and middle Title I schools and school divisions by providing principal instructional leadership practices to help improve overall student achievement and close achievement gaps amongst student groups. Practitioners can utilize the study to help with PD of principals or for developing principal preparation programs. This study might provide researchers with literature research-based strategies on instructional leadership practices and the perceived impact on student achievement in Title I schools.

The achievement gap between Black and White students across the country continues to challenge school systems to rethink current initiatives and programs already in place. While the gap has narrowed since the late 1980s, advancement has been slow and minimal (Education Commission of the States, 2003). Present research has identified numerous factors that can be attributed to the achievement gap. While there is not one solution to closing the achievement gap, researchers indicate the need to reduce class sizes, increase parent involvement, develop year-round programs, and offer incentives to teachers in needy schools (Flannery, 2005). Year-round education is one example of the many reforms that teachers and students across the nation are involved in today (Kneese, 1996). Year-round education offers a different approach to using instructional time and restructuring the traditional school calendar. Rearranging the calendar allows for shorter breaks of time out to be offered throughout the year and eliminates the traditional three-month summer. Numerous research studies were examined to determine if there are benefits of a year-round program, the effects of implementing a non-traditional calendar to help eliminate the achievement gap, the benefits on student academic performance in Reading and Math in grades three and five; and the impact on gender and ethnicity achievement while focusing on eliminating the achievement gap. Current research indicates that year-round education and the benefits to students are inconclusive and that further research is needed (Kneese, 1996). McMillen's (2001) study reports that year-round students do not outperform traditional education students. However, certain subgroups, such as students considered at-risk, may benefit more from a year-round calendar. The year-round calendar may reduce the achievement gap (Cooper, Valentine, Charlton, and Melson, 2003). This paper focused on student achievement, gender and ethnicity in a Title I year-round setting. / Ed. D.

This was a multi-faceted mixed methods study that investigated several aspects associated to class size and the perceived effects on student achievement in Title I elementary schools. The data collection in this study was conducted through two separate phases. The first qualitative phase was a case study that was comprised of teacher interviews and classroom observations. The case study took place at a Title I school in Central Virginia, chosen for its diverse representativeness of the student population. Classroom interactions were coded during five-minute segments in each full-day classroom observation, as well as field notes made for specific types of instructional methods being used within each Title I classroom: individualized instruction, small group instruction, connecting personally with students, and incorporating technology into daily instruction. While a majority of the interactions within each classroom were positive, patterns emerged within the negative interactions that occurred. Interview responses indicated that the perceived ideal class size for Title I schools is 12-18 students, as well as provided explanations behind the perceived effects of class size on student achievement. Findings from the first phase were used to create a survey that was distributed during the second qualitative phase of this study. This survey was distributed to the larger Title I teacher population within the same school district to generalize the findings from the case study. Finally, systematic student assessment data was collected to compare the perceived effects of class size to the observed effects of class size on student achievement data. Although the findings from the student achievement data were inconclusive, there were several factors associated to class size that are discussed to explain the observed effects on student achievement data in the case study Title I school.

Title I federal regulations provide funding to school districts to support Supplemental Educational Service (SES) tutoring services to qualified economically disadvantaged K-12 students and that these services should be monitored by school districts to determine its effectiveness. However, a school district in Southern California that is the focus of this convergent parallel design study has not provided sufficient oversight of the SES tutoring program resulting in ambiguity about policy implementation effectiveness. Using a theoretical framework of policy implementation as the foundation, the purpose of this study was to explore the role that quality of service played when administrators implemented the No Child Left Behind Act to evaluate tutoring services supplied by SES providers. Data were collected through a series of interviews with 10 school district administrators who also completed the EDUSERV survey. Data from the interviews were inductively coded and subjected to thematic analysis and descriptive information from the survey were calculated. Findings indicate that SES providers work diligently to support student learning improvement, but the inconsistent oversight by the school district has resulted in disparity in performance scores in educational attainment. The positive social change implications of this study include recommendations to school district leadership to engage in consistent training for leadership in oversight of the SES program as well as improvements in oversight of SES performance in order to enhance outcomes for economically marginalized students

Literature suggests strong, positive and mutual relationships between home and school lead to higher levels of success and achievement for students. Schools should begin to focus on being more aware and sensitive to the cultural and social wealth that marginalized families carry. When institutions of learning begin to tap into and embrace the strengths of their families, it is likely to be of mutual benefit for the students, staff and families. Utilizing qualitative research methodology, this study sought to understand African American grandmothers' perspectives on parental involvement, and identify strategies that supported, maintained, and facilitated their involvement in the educational process of the grandsons in their care. In this research study, I specifically sought to address the following questions: * How do African American grandmothers see their involvement in their grandchildren's education? * How have the grandmothers shaped their involvement in the education of the grandchildren under their care? What influenced their involvement? * What are their perspectives on the level of involvement in the education of the grandchildren under their care? * What do African American grandmothers see as barriers and opportunities as they try to guide their grandchildren through formal schooling? The cultural capital theoretical framework helped to understand and interpret the experiences of the African American grandmothers in this study raising their grandsons. The framework also helped to understand how each grandmother constructed and perceived their roles as grandmothers. In terms of support for the theory, the findings collected through interviews revealed that despite past oppressive conditions, barriers and cultural incongruence associated with schools, the grandmothers stayed abreast of and connected to school norms and practices for the benefit of their grandsons. Although each grandmother displayed a combination of capitals and wealth, aspirational wealth, resonated across each capital. Major themes of the study included: Grandmothers: Mothering and Leading by Example; Family and Communal Support: "It Takes a Village;" Grandmothers Engaging in Traditional Parental Involvement Activities; Grandmothers-Grandsons as Co-learners; and Grandmothers' Critique and Advice for Schools. Implications for future research includes creating supportive and caring school environments, ensuring that school leaders and staff display welcoming behaviors and demonstrate support in parental involvement programs, and school leaders and teachers having and maintaining high expectations. Understanding how African American grandmothers and other family members, construct, perceive and enact certain cultural wealth and social capital should become more prevalent in scholarly work and research. Parents of different races and culture favor different forms of involvement. Implications from this research study suggest that educators and school leaders must begin to acknowledge, address, and value the cultural differences and social wealth that African American grandmothers and family members possess.

The role that support systems play in new teachers' levels of school commitment has been widely documented. However, veteran teachers' levels of commitment have not been as closely studied. According to the department of education in a Southeastern state, the veteran teacher attrition rate at a Title I school in an urban school district was in the double digits for several years. High veteran teacher attrition rates and low levels of commitment can cause problems such as loss of continuity of instruction for students. The purpose of this study was to identify veteran teachers' perceptions of their levels of school commitment and how the district can support and retain veteran educators. Self-determination theory, as it relates to the satisfaction of teachers' needs and concerns in the context of their work environment, formed the conceptual framework for this study. The study was implemented to explore research questions related to veteran teachers' needs and concerns, working conditions, and supports. A case study research design was utilized. Interview data were collected from a criterion-based, purposeful sample of 10 veteran teachers. These data were analyzed inductively for common themes and patterns and resulted in findings based on veteran teachers' needs and concerns such as greater district and parent support and job-embedded professional development. A project was developed based on the findings to address the problem. The project focused on creating professional learning communities to support veteran teachers and increase their levels of school commitment. Positive social change can result from creating these professional learning communities for veteran teachers in order to address their needs and concerns, such as greater school commitment for veteran teachers and more continuity of instruction for students, which will result in higher academic achievement.

The College Board’s Advanced Placement (AP) Program continues to expand annually with increased numbers of high school students nationwide enrolling in AP courses and taking end-of-course AP exams, in hopes of earning college credit and strengthening high school transcripts. As the College Board promotes increased minority student participation (specifically African-American and Hispanic students) in AP courses, AP teachers face new challenges as potential first-generation college students enter their classrooms with below-level reading scores and a lack of essential critical-thinking skills needed for college-level assessment. The participants in this study are five AP U.S. History Teachers from urban, suburban, and rural Title I high schools. In this inquiry, I explore how their backgrounds and experiences shape their approaches to curriculum and pedagogy in their respective environments. I conducted two separate interviews with each teacher: the first addressed their formative years and educational experiences, while the second focused on their teaching philosophies and how they deliver course content. The data revealed similar instructional practices among the participants, all of whom choose student-centered teaching models to varying degrees to enhance student engagement. This discourse highlights the need for further inquiry into the perspectives of AP teachers in Title I schools to inform future policymaking decisions within schools and school districts to enhance historically marginalized student populations’ college and career opportunities.

The increasing cultural diversity in the United States has brought not only richness, but also complex challenges, to various segments of American society, particularly with regard to public schools. As the student population continues to diversify while teacher population remains predominately White, female, and middle class, teacher awareness in the classroom might be an integral piece to assist students marginalized by stereotypes in feeling more empowered in the school community. Through qualitative data collection and analysis, and framed by Basil Bernstein’s language code theory, this study explored teachers’ perceptions of how classroom interactions, in light of differences in communication, might impact students of different socio-economic backgrounds from the teacher. The findings of this study indicated that the participants expressed a desire to connect with all of their students, regardless of their background. They also discussed challenges that made relationships difficult, such as feelings of disconnect from their Title I students and their families based on differences in home life and background. This dissonance was often difficult for the participants to reconcile due to pressures and difficulties in their teaching situations, such as the large number of students and the scheduling of classes, curricular pressures, and other district expectations such as after-school ensembles. Implications for practicing music teachers and teacher education include ways to understand students’ communities and rethinking ways of approaching relevant terminology in education.