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In the post smallpox era, vaccinia virus (VACV) has emerged as an important candidate vaccine vector. As yet, the binding receptors and entry mechanisms utilised by the two infectious forms, IMV and EEV, in dendritic cells (DCs) are unknown. We have investigated the interactions between VACV and C-type lectin receptors (CLRs) that are known to be utilised by many other viruses for binding and entry in DCs. Using a variety of CLR ligands and inhibitors we were unable to inhibit IMV or EEV binding to MDDCs and we conclude that they do not bind to CLRs. We have also investigated VACV entry in MDDCs and show that both IMV and EEV enter MDDCs via an endocytic pathway. Using a variety of drugs that inhibit cellular processes we found IMV and EEV entry to be actin- and calcium-dependent. EEV entry was also cholesterol- and energy-dependent, whereas IMV entry was only partially dependent on these factors. Both IMV and EEV colocalised with endolysosomal markers. This data suggests that EEV may enter DCs via caveolin-mediated endocytosis whereas IMV entry can occur via multiple complementary mechanisms, including endocytosis and fusion. Macropinocytosis may also constitute a minor route of entry for IMV as entry was partially inhibited by dimethyl amiloride and the virus colocalised with dextran. Finally we have provided a comprehensive flow cytometric analysis of Toll-like receptor (TLR) expression at the protein level in MDDCs and monocyte-derived Langerhans cells (MDLCs) as models for different myeloid DC subsets. We found TLR expression to be cell type-specific and MDDCs expressed the full repertoire of TLRs 1-9, including small amounts of TLR8 and TLR9 on the cell surface. The expression of these TLRs that recognise nucleic acids on the surface of cells may constitute an early warning system for signalling the presence of viral invaders that would normally subvert the function of DCs. We also found TLR expression in mature cells to be dependent on the nature of the maturation stimulus (lipopolysaccharide versus cytokine/prostaglandin cocktail) and VACV infection induced profound down-regulation of all TLRs. These findings will have important implications for the rational design of VACV-vectored vaccines.

Thesis (Ph.D. in Immunology) -- University of Colorado Denver, 2007. / Typescript. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 146-169). Free to UCD affiliates. Online version available via ProQuest Digital Dissertations;

Thesis (Ph.D. in Immunology) -- University of Colorado Denver, 2008. / Typescript. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 122-129). Free to UCD Anschutz Medical Campus. Online version available via ProQuest Digital Dissertations;

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Alabama at Birmingham, 2008. / Title from first page of PDF file (viewed on June 24, 2009). Includes bibliographical references (p. 88-101).

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Alabama at Birmingham, 2009. / Title from PDF title page (viewed on July 14, 2010). Includes bibliographical references.

<p>Droplet microfluidics is a powerful platform for both fundamental and applied biomedical research. The droplets are small in size with a diameter of 1-300 um. Thus, they could function as a miniaturized environment for quantitative and qualitative analysis. Each droplet composes of water shielded by an immiscible organic shell which enables independent control over different droplets. The large surface to volume ratio of spherical structure allows rapid mass and heat transfer, which could enable more homogeneous chemical reactions. Moreover, since multiple identical droplets could be generated simultaneously, parallel analysis for large amount of samples are possible. The use of microfluidics brings more power to droplet technology. The precise control over the flow allows droplet with preferable size and structure to be generated, which is critical for quantitative analysis, homogeneous chemical reaction as well as some in vivo applications. </p><p>Nonetheless, generation of stable, monodispersed and well controlled emulsions to meet specific biological functions are still challenging. First of all, to form more biocompatible W/O/W DE, the microfluidics devices must be patterned with desired surface wettability. W/O emulsion could only form in hydrophobic environment and the O/W emulsions could only form in hydrophilic environment. Differential patterning of the surface wettability to meet the needs are challenging. Second, DE are stabilized by two amphiphilic surfactants, one for the oil phase and the other for the water phase. Selection of appropriate surfactants should hook with specific biological application to ensure stability and biocompatibility. Third, the choice of fluid and contents in the fluid will affect the viscosity and capillary number of interfacial interaction, and eventually influences the droplet formation. The choice of biocompatible medium and buffer must take this into consideration. Fourth, the adoption of emulsions for the specific application requires optimization of the processing techniques in order to meet the needs for final analysis. For instance, control of droplet rupture for content release, modulation of oil phase permeability, quantitative analysis of content with flow cytometry, etc. </p><p>In this thesis, we will first demonstrate the design and fabrication of PDMS-based devices for automatic and high-throughput DE formation in Chapter 2. In the following chapters, we will demonstrate the successful adoption of the microfluidics generated DE for different biological applications. In chapter 3, we will illustrate the application of DE as a micro-incubator for cellular studies such genetic circuit behavior and performance in bacterial cells cultured in DE droplets and formation of 3D mammalian cell spheroid. In chapter 4, we will show the successful application of DE as drug carriers for intranasal drug delivery. In chapter 5, we showed the application of microfluidics generated DE as template for microparticle synthesis and the use of these microparticles as therapeutic agents in nucleic acid induced inflammations in autoimmune diseases.</p> / Dissertation

Le virus de l'hépatite B (HBV) infecte chroniquement près de 240 millions d'individus dans le monde. L'infection chronique par HBV est un souci de santé publique majeur puisque l'infection peut évoluer au cours du temps vers la cirrhose et/ou l'hépatocarcinome (CHC). Malgré l'existence de traitements efficaces à base d'analogues de nucléos(t)ides permettant de diminuer la charge virale chez les patients, ceux-ci nécessitent une prise médicamenteuse à vie. En effet, malgré la diminution importante du risque de développer un cancer du foie, ces traitements ne permettent pas l'élimination définitive du virus. Les cellules infectées par HBV sont les hépatocytes du foie, qui remplissent la majorité des rôles vitaux de cet organe. La formation d'un minichromosome viral au sein de ces cellules infectées appelés ADNccc (pour ADN circulaire-covalemment-clos), est majoritairement responsable de la persistance du HBV. Les traitements actuels utilisés sont principalement des analogues de nucléos(t)ides et ceux-ci n'ont pas ou peu d'effets sur l'ADNccc. La nécessité de développer de nouvelles stratégies antivirales visant à éliminer définitivement HBV a donc conduit de nombreux laboratoires, dont le nôtre, à étudier l'utilisation de stratégies immuno-thérapeutiques incluant des stimulateurs de l'immunité innée (agonistes de TLR7, TLR8, RIG-1.) dans le cadre d'infections chroniques. De nombreuses études ont démontré que l'utilisation de ligands stimulant les récepteurs de l'immunité innée promouvait un fort effet antiviral, médié par la production endogène et locale de cytokines pro-inflammatoires et l'induction de gènes régulés par l'interféron (1SG). Dans ce but, nous nous sommes intéressés plus particulièrement aux potentiels effets antiviraux de l'agonisation des senseurs de l'immunité innée les plus connus, les Toll-like récepteurs (TLR), dans le cadre de l'infection par HBV dans les cellules hépatiques. La stratégie immuno-thérapeutique envisagée, vise à stimuler aussi bien les cellules immunitaires que les hépatocytes infectés. La caractérisation de l'expression de différents senseurs de l'immunité innée, d'une part dans les cellules primaires isolées du foie et d'autre part dans certaines lignées cellulaires correspondantes, nous a permis d'avoir une vue d'ensemble 1) des récepteurs exprimés par les différentes cellules du foie notamment dans les hépatocytes (TLR2/TLR3/TLR4/TLR5) ; 2) d'évaluer la fonctionnalité de ceux-ci pour la production de cytokines (IL-6 ; IP-10) lors de leur agonisation 3) d'évaluer les modèles disponibles parmi les lignées cellulaires les plus proches immunologiquement des cellules hépatiques. Les cellules HepaRG et une nouvelle lignée dérivée des macrophages du foie les iKC par exemple sont plus proches respectivement des hépatocytes et des macrophages primaires hépatiques et sont donc des modèles relevant pour les études immuno-thérapeutiques. L'utilisation de ligands de TLR2 et TLR3 sur des hépatocytes infectés chroniquement par HBV, a montré le plus fort effet antiviral (incluant une médiation par la sécrétion de cytokines et l'induction d'1SG) aussi bien sur la réplication d'HBV que sur l'ADNccc. De plus, cet effet semble stable au cours du temps sans résurgence massive de productions virales. Cette stratégie cible non seulement les hépatocytes infectés, mais également les cellules immunitaires dont les productions cytokiniques ont également un fort effet antiviral. Bien que l'effet in vivo, dans un modèle murin, ait été plus modeste, un ajustement des doses d'agonistes utilisées ainsi qu'un meilleur moyen de délivrance au foie de ligands de TLR2 ou TLR3 pourraient être une stratégie immuno-thérapeutique intéressante. Enfin nous nous sommes intéressés au cas particulier de l'agonisation du TLR9 en présence d'HBV… [etc] / HBV chronically infects 240 million peoples around the world. HBV chronic infection is a major public health problem and can lead to cirrhosis or/and hepatocarcinoma (HCC). Even if some efficient treatments are already available, based in particular on the use of nucleos(t)ides analogues that induce a decrease of viral load in patients, these drugs do not lead to a definitive HBV cure They enable an important decrease of liver cancer risk but need to be taken life-long. HBV infects hepatocytes the major liver cells which are involve in many vital mechanisms into the organism. The HBV minichromosome, which is formed into infected cells also called cccDNA (i.e., covalently-closed-circular DNA), is not affected by nucleos(t)ides treatments and thus is responsible for HBV persistence. The use of immune receptors (e.g. Toll-like receptors/TLR) agonists can lead to 1) an important cytokines/interferon (IFN) secretion; 2) promote immune cells activation/recruitment and 3) induction of many Interferon-Stimulated Genes (ISG). These mechanisms could lead to a greater viral clearance by cccDNA degradation or silencing. The need for new strategies to permanently eliminate HBV infection led many laboratories, including ours, to explore the use of immunotherapeutic treatments in a context of chronic infection, including innate immune stimulators (e.g. TLR7, TLR8 or RIG-I agonist are under clinical trials). To this end, we got interested on the potential anti-HBV effects of many TLR agonists in liver cells. Our strategy is to stimulate both infected hepatocytes and immune cells. We first characterized the expression of innate immune sensors in primary liver cells as well as in some liver cell lines. This allowed us to: 1) identify which sensors are expressed by liver cells, especially in hepatocytes (TLR2, TLR3, TLR4, TLR5); 2) evaluate their ability to produce cytokines (IL-6, IP-10) upon agonisation; 3) evaluation of cell lines model which are immunologically closed to the primary liver cells. HepaRG and a new liver macrophage cell line call iKC are immunologically close to their primary cells and appear to be relevant models for immune-therapeutics studies. The use of TLR2 and TLR3 agonists on HBV chronically infected hepatocytes showed a strong antiviral effect (i.e., decrease of HBV replication and cccDNA level) mediated directly by NF- kB-inducible and ISG genes activation and indirectly by cytokines secretion. Furthermore, this effect was shown stable over time without any viral replication rebound. This strategy targets not only infected hepatocytes but also immune cells, whose cytokines production also has a strong antiviral effect. Despite a weak in vivo effect in mice, a tuning in agonist doses used and better liver delivery could be an interesting immune-therapeutic strategy. Finally, we were investigated the particular case of TLR9 agonisation in presence of HBV. We showed an interaction between synthetic or not DNA ligands such as CpG ODN and HBV particles. This interaction leads in one hand, to HBV entry inhibition in hepatocytes, on the other hand, to a blockage of ligand delivery to TLR9 in pDC, which is not due to an inhibition of the TLR9 pathway, but to a lack of access of the ligand to its receptor. These two mechanisms are responsible for a decrease of viral infection during its establishment and a decrease in IFN synthesis by pDC, respectively. A decrease in IFN production, which this time was linked to a bona fide inhibition of the TLR9 pathway, in the presence of the sub-viral particles HBsAg was still observed, without retention of TLR9 ligand of the latter. It would seem, therefore, that use of TLR agonists represent an interesting strategy in setting up new anti-HBV immune-therapeutic approaches. However, their improvement will depend on the evaluation of viro-induced inhibitory mechanisms as well as better ways of in vivo delivering these ligands

Introdução: Um dos primeiros sistemas de defesa contra os microrganismos é a via dos receptores Toll-like (TLRs). A ativação destes receptores leva à síntese de citocinas, dando início à resposta imune inata. Em modelos animais, o TLR2, TLR4 e TLR9 parecem estar relacionados com o reconhecimento de antígenos de Leishmania. A relação entre TLRs e leishmânia pode ser um mecanismo chave no desenvolvimento da doença ou no controle da mesma. Até o momento não existem estudos de TLRs na leishmaniose cutânea humana. Objetivo: Determinar o padrão de expressão e as células associadas com o TLR2, TLR4 e TLR9 na leishmaniose cutânea. O objetivo secundário é correlacionar a quantidade de TLRs com a quantidade de citocinas e células inflamatórias na pele. Métodos: Cem biópsias de pacientes com leishmaniose cutânea causadas por Leishmania (V.) braziliensis foram selecionadas inicialmente. Apenas os casos confirmados (presença de amastigotas no raspado, teste de Montenegro positivo, imunoistoquímica com presença de antígenos de Leishmania e reação em cadeia da polimerase com DNA de Leishmania (V.) braziliensis foram incluídos. Um grupo controle de pele normal foi incluído para comparação (quatro casos). A expressão de TLR2, TLR4 e TLR9 foi determinada por técnica imunoistoquímica, da mesma forma que os fenótipos celulares (células NK, macrófagos, células dendríticas, células CD4 e CD8) e citocinas (IL-1, IL-6, IL-12, TNF-alfa, IFN-gama). Dupla-marcação foi realizada para identificar as células que expressaram os TLRs analisados. Análise semi-quantitativa foi utilizada para avaliação da expressão de TLRs na epiderme, enquanto na derme foi realizada análise quantitativa. O nível de significância foi estabelecido com p<0,05. Resultados: Doze casos preencheram os critérios de inclusão. Os pacientes eram todos masculinos, com lesões apenas em membros inferiores e mediana de idade de 23 anos [16-47]. A expressão de TLR2, TLR4 e TLR9 na epiderme da pele normal foi alta. Quando comparados com pele normal, tanto TLR4 quanto TLR2 mostraram menor expressão no epitélio dos pacientes com leishmaniose e não houve expressão de TLR9. A média de células expressando TLR2 na derme foi de 136,36±82,46 células/mm2, ao passo que a média de células expressando TLR4 foi de 3,21±4,11 células/mm2. A contagem de TLR9 foi de 86,15±88,36 células/mm2 predominando em áreas de formação de granulomas. A regressão linear não demonstrou relação entre a contagem de células marcadas ou citocinas com TLR2 ou TLR4. O aumento proporcional da expressão de TLR9 relacionou-se com maior expressão de IL-12 e IL-4 (p < 0,05). A dupla marcação demonstrou que os macrófagos expressaram TLR2. A dupla marcação não mostrou expressão de TLR2 nas células dendríticas e nas células NK. Conclusão: A leishmaniose cutânea localizada associa-se com a presença de TLR2, TLR4 e TLR9. No epitélio a expressão de TLR2 e TLR4 em pacientes com leishmaniose está diminuída em relação aos pacientes controles. A expressão do TLR2 na derme é estatisticamente maior que a de TLR4 e TLR9, a qual é expressa pelos macrófagos. A expressão de TLR9 ocorre principalmente nas áreas de granulomas havendo relação com a expressão de IL-12 e IL-4 / Introduction: One of the first systems of defense against microorganisms is the Toll-like receptors (TLRs) pathway. The activation of these receptors promotes the cytokine synthesis, initiating the innate immune response. In animal models, TLR2, TLR4 and TLR9 appear to be related to the recognition of antigens of Leishmania. The relationship between TLRs and Leishmania can be a key mechanism in the development of the disease or it control. Until now, there are not studies about TLRs in human cutaneous leishmaniasis. Objective: To determine the expression pattern and the cells associated with TLR2, TLR4 and TLR9 in cutaneous leishmaniasis. The secondary objective is to correlate the amount of TLRs with the amount of cytokines and inflammatory cells. Methods: One hundred biopsies from patients with cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania (V.) braziliensis were initially selected. Only confirmed cases of cutaneous leishmaniasis were included in the analysis (presence of amastigotes in the scraping, positive Montenegro test, immunohistochemistry with the presence of Leishmania antigens and polymerase chain reaction with DNA from Leishmania (V.) braziliensis. A control group (4 cases) of normal skin was included for comparison. The expression of TLR2, TLR4 and TLR9 was determined by immunohistochemistry, as well as cell phenotypes (NK cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, CD4 and CD8) and cytokines (IL-1, IL-6, IL-12, TNF-alpha, IFN-gamma). Double-staining was used to determine the cells expressing TLRs. Semi-quantitative analysis was used for evaluation of the expression of TLRs in the epidermis. Quantitative analysis was performed to evaluate the expression in the dermis. The level of significance was defined as p <0.05. Results: 12 cases fulfilled inclusion criteria. The patients were all male, with lesions in lower limbs and median age of 23 years [16-47]. The expression of TLR2 and TLR4 in the epidermis of normal skin was high. When compared with normal skin, TLR2 and TLR4 showed lower expression in the epidermis. There was no expression of TLR9 in the epidermis in cases of cutaneous leishmaniasis and normal skin. The mean number of cells expressing TLR2 in the dermis was 136.36±82.46 cells/mm2, while the average of cells expressing TLR4 was 3.21±4.11 cells/mm2. The count of TLR9 was 86.15±88.36 cells/mm2, and it was found mainly in the areas of granuloma formation. Linear regression showed no relationship between the number of labeled cells or cytokines with TLR2 or TLR4. There was an association between TLR9 and two cytokines (IL-12 and IL-4). This correlation suggested that the proportional increase in the expression of TLR9 was related to greater expression of IL-12 and IL-4 (p<0.05). The double staining showed that macrophages and endothelial cells expressed TLR2. The double staining showed no expression of TLR2 in dendritic cells and NK cells. Conclusion: The localized cutaneous leishmaniasis associated with the presence of TLR2, TLR4 and TLR9. The expression of TLR2 in the dermis was statistically greater than that of TLR4 and TLR9, which is expressed by macrophages. The expression of TLR9 occurs primarily in the areas of granulomas was associated with the expression of IL-12 and IL-4

Orientador: Juliana Regina Peiró / Banca: Valéria Marçal Felix de Lima / Banca: Carlos Augusto Araújo Valadão / Resumo: A endotoxemia é um importante distúrbio sistêmico que se origina da resposta do hospedeiro a um componente das bactérias Gram-negativas, o lipopolissacarídeo (LPS) ou endotoxina, que é liberado após bacteriólise ou rápida multiplicação. A ativação do sistema imune inato pelo LPS é um fator chave para o disparo da resposta inflamatória pelo hospedeiro e que acarreta a produção de mediadores inflamatórios, responsáveis pelos eventos patológicos da endotoxemia. A interação dos receptores Toll-like (TLRs) com antígenos específicos deflagram a resposta inflamatória, sendo que o receptor Toll-like-4 (TLR-4) é ativado pela ação das endotoxinas, enquanto o receptor Toll-like-2 (TLR-2) interage com uma variedade de componentes microbianos. Uma exposição prévia a baixas concentrações de LPS pode tornar os cavalos "tolerantes" a um desafio letal subsequente, acarretando uma diminuição na produção de citocinas inflamatórias por um período transitório. Pouco se sabe a respeito do mecanismo celular deste fenômeno em equinos, supondo-se o envolvimento dos receptores Toll-like semelhante ao encontrado em outras espécies. Com este estudo investigaram-se os mecanismos celulares da tolerância à endotoxina em um modelo ex vivo com sangue total. Foi demonstrado redução na síntese de citocinas pró-inflamatórias (TNF-α, IL-1 e IL-6), aumento da expressão gênica da citocina anti-inflamatória IL-10, e ausência de expressão do TGF-β, após o desafio secundário com LPS. A maior expressão dos receptores TLR-2 e -4 após o segundo estímulo de LPS demonstrou que a tolerância à endotoxina não acarreta diminuição da expressão de ambos os receptores em equinos. / Abstract: Endotoxemia is an important systemic disease originated from host response to a component of Gram-negative bacteria, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or endotoxin, which is released after bacteria death or quick replication. The innate immune recognition of LPS has a key role triggering host inflammatory answer and is due to inflammatory mediator's synthesis, which are responsible for pathologic events of endotoxemia. Signs initiated by interaction of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) with specific products induce the inflammatory response. Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR- 4) is activated by endotoxin action while Toll-like receptor-2 (TLR-2) interacts with a range of microbial compounds. Some studies demonstrate that both can act like LPS receptors, although by independent pathways. It was demonstrated that a previous exposition to low concentrations of LPS can render horses "tolerant" to a lethal subsequent challenge with endotoxin, leading to a diminished release of inflammatory cytokines during a transient period. However, little is known about the cellular mechanisms involved in this phenomenon in horses, suspecting that there is involvement of cell surface receptors, similarly to other species. This study investigated cellular mechanisms of endotoxin tolerance in a whole blood ex vivo model, demonstrating a reduction on pro-inflammatory cytokines synthesis (TNF- α, IL-1 and IL-6), increased gene expression of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 and no alteration in TGF-β expression, after a secondary stimulus with LPS. The Toll-like receptors-2 and -4 increased expression after a second stimulus with LPS showed that endotoxin tolerance does not lead to a decreased expression of both receptors in horses. / Mestre