The main aim of the study was to analyse the impact of physico-chemical parameters on drinking water quality, biofilm formation and antibiotic resistant bacteria in the drinking water distribution system in Mafikeng, North West Province, South Africa. Another objective was to isolate and characterise Pseudomonas and Aeromonas species from drinking water distribution system and detect the virulence gene determinants in the isolates by PCR analysis. The physico-chemical data obtained were subjected to statistical analysis using Excel 2007 (Microsoft) and SPSS (version 14.0) programmes. Pearson’s correlation product of the moment was used to determine the correlation between EC, TDS, pH and temperature. The two tailed test of significance (p<0.05) was used in order to determine the significance of the result. Antibiotic susceptibility tests were performed using Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method. Cluster analysis based on the antibiotic inhibition zone diameter data of different organisms isolated from different sites was determined and was expressed as dendograms using Wards algorithm and Euclidean distance of Statistica version 7. Specific PCR was used to determine the identities of presumptive Pseudomonas and Aeromonas species through amplification of the gyrB, toxA and the ecfX gene fragments. Virulence gene determinants for the confirmed Pseudomonas and Aeromonas species were detected by amplifying the exoA, exoS and exoT genes and the aerA and hylH gene fragments, respectively. A Gene Genius Bio imaging system (Syngene, Synoptics; UK) was used to capture the image using GeneSnap (version 3.07.01) software (Syngene, Synoptics; UK) to determine the relative size of amplicons. Physico-chemical parameters were monitored from three drinking water sources three times a week and bacteriological quality was monitored weekly for four months from raw and treated drinking water. Water samples were analysed for pH, temperature, total dissolved solids (TDS) and electric conductivity (EC). Bacterial consortia from drinking water samples were isolated using selective media and enumerated. The results revealed a good chemical quality of water. However, the microbial quality of the water is not acceptable for human consumption due to the presence of Pseudomonas, Aeromonas, faecal coliforms (FC), total coliforms (TC) and Heterotrophic bacteria. The results showed that the drinking water is slightly alkaline with pH value ranging between7.7 to 8.32. What is of concern was the microbial quality of the water. Pseudomonas sp., faecal coliforms (FC), total coliforms (TC) and heterotrophic bacteria were present in some of the treated water samples. The most significant finding of this study is that all drinking water samples were positive for Pseudomonas sp.(>100/100ml), but also that when one considers the TDS it demonstrates that water from the Modimola Dam has an impact on the quality of the mixed water. The prevalence and antibiotic resistance profiles of planktonic and biofilm bacteria isolated from drinking water were determined. The susceptibility of these isolates was tested against 11 antibiotics of clinical interest and the multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) patterns were compiled. The most prevalent antibiotic resistance phenotype observed was KF-AP-C-E-OT-K-TM-A. All isolates from all samples were susceptible to ciprofloxacin. However, all faecal coliforms and Pseudomonas spp. were susceptible to neomycin and streptomycin. On the contrary all organisms tested were resistant to erythromycin (100%) trimethoprim and amoxycillin. Cluster analysis based on inhibition zone diameter data could not differentiate the various isolated into sample types. The highest prevalence of antibiotic resistant isolates was observed in Modimola Dam and Molopo eye. Biofilms were investigated in both raw water and treated drinking water sources for the presence of faecal coliforms, total coliforms, Pseudomonas spp., Aeromonas spp. and heterotrophic bacteria based on conventional microbiology and molecular methods. Drinking water biofilms were grown twice and the biofilm developing device containing copper and galvanized steel coupons were utilized. The Mini Tap filter, a home water treatment device which can be used at a single faucet, under constant flow was used during the second collection of treated water samples from cold water taps. Scanning electron micrograph revealed the existence of biofilms in all the sites investigated and the highest density was obtained on galvanized steel coupons. Isolates were tested against the antibiotics ampicillin (10μg), cephalothin (5μg), streptomycin (10μg), erythromycin (15μg), chloramphenicol (30μg), neomycin (30 μg), amoxycillin (10 μg), ciprofloxacin (5 μg), trimethoprim (25μg), kanamycin (30μg), and oxytetracycline (30μg). The multiple antibiotic resistance profiles and the presence of virulence related genes were determined. Various types of drug resistance and presence of virulence genes were observed. The most prevalent resistance phenotype observed was KF-AP-C-E-OT-TM-A. In conclusion, the results indicated the occurrence of faecal indicator bacteria in the drinking water destined for human consumption. Faecal indicator bacteria are the major contributors of poor drinking water quality and may harbour opportunistic pathogens. This highlighted survival of organisms to treatment procedures and the possible regrowth as biofilms in plumbing materials. The detection of large proportion of MAR Aeromonas and Pseudomonas species which possessed virulent genes was a cause of concern as these could pose health risks to humans. The data obtained herein may be useful in assessing the health risks associated with the consumption of contaminated water. / PhD (Microbiology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

The main aim of the study was to analyse the impact of physico-chemical parameters on drinking water quality, biofilm formation and antibiotic resistant bacteria in the drinking water distribution system in Mafikeng, North West Province, South Africa. Another objective was to isolate and characterise Pseudomonas and Aeromonas species from drinking water distribution system and detect the virulence gene determinants in the isolates by PCR analysis. The physico-chemical data obtained were subjected to statistical analysis using Excel 2007 (Microsoft) and SPSS (version 14.0) programmes. Pearson’s correlation product of the moment was used to determine the correlation between EC, TDS, pH and temperature. The two tailed test of significance (p<0.05) was used in order to determine the significance of the result. Antibiotic susceptibility tests were performed using Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method. Cluster analysis based on the antibiotic inhibition zone diameter data of different organisms isolated from different sites was determined and was expressed as dendograms using Wards algorithm and Euclidean distance of Statistica version 7. Specific PCR was used to determine the identities of presumptive Pseudomonas and Aeromonas species through amplification of the gyrB, toxA and the ecfX gene fragments. Virulence gene determinants for the confirmed Pseudomonas and Aeromonas species were detected by amplifying the exoA, exoS and exoT genes and the aerA and hylH gene fragments, respectively. A Gene Genius Bio imaging system (Syngene, Synoptics; UK) was used to capture the image using GeneSnap (version 3.07.01) software (Syngene, Synoptics; UK) to determine the relative size of amplicons. Physico-chemical parameters were monitored from three drinking water sources three times a week and bacteriological quality was monitored weekly for four months from raw and treated drinking water. Water samples were analysed for pH, temperature, total dissolved solids (TDS) and electric conductivity (EC). Bacterial consortia from drinking water samples were isolated using selective media and enumerated. The results revealed a good chemical quality of water. However, the microbial quality of the water is not acceptable for human consumption due to the presence of Pseudomonas, Aeromonas, faecal coliforms (FC), total coliforms (TC) and Heterotrophic bacteria. The results showed that the drinking water is slightly alkaline with pH value ranging between7.7 to 8.32. What is of concern was the microbial quality of the water. Pseudomonas sp., faecal coliforms (FC), total coliforms (TC) and heterotrophic bacteria were present in some of the treated water samples. The most significant finding of this study is that all drinking water samples were positive for Pseudomonas sp.(>100/100ml), but also that when one considers the TDS it demonstrates that water from the Modimola Dam has an impact on the quality of the mixed water. The prevalence and antibiotic resistance profiles of planktonic and biofilm bacteria isolated from drinking water were determined. The susceptibility of these isolates was tested against 11 antibiotics of clinical interest and the multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) patterns were compiled. The most prevalent antibiotic resistance phenotype observed was KF-AP-C-E-OT-K-TM-A. All isolates from all samples were susceptible to ciprofloxacin. However, all faecal coliforms and Pseudomonas spp. were susceptible to neomycin and streptomycin. On the contrary all organisms tested were resistant to erythromycin (100%) trimethoprim and amoxycillin. Cluster analysis based on inhibition zone diameter data could not differentiate the various isolated into sample types. The highest prevalence of antibiotic resistant isolates was observed in Modimola Dam and Molopo eye. Biofilms were investigated in both raw water and treated drinking water sources for the presence of faecal coliforms, total coliforms, Pseudomonas spp., Aeromonas spp. and heterotrophic bacteria based on conventional microbiology and molecular methods. Drinking water biofilms were grown twice and the biofilm developing device containing copper and galvanized steel coupons were utilized. The Mini Tap filter, a home water treatment device which can be used at a single faucet, under constant flow was used during the second collection of treated water samples from cold water taps. Scanning electron micrograph revealed the existence of biofilms in all the sites investigated and the highest density was obtained on galvanized steel coupons. Isolates were tested against the antibiotics ampicillin (10μg), cephalothin (5μg), streptomycin (10μg), erythromycin (15μg), chloramphenicol (30μg), neomycin (30 μg), amoxycillin (10 μg), ciprofloxacin (5 μg), trimethoprim (25μg), kanamycin (30μg), and oxytetracycline (30μg). The multiple antibiotic resistance profiles and the presence of virulence related genes were determined. Various types of drug resistance and presence of virulence genes were observed. The most prevalent resistance phenotype observed was KF-AP-C-E-OT-TM-A. In conclusion, the results indicated the occurrence of faecal indicator bacteria in the drinking water destined for human consumption. Faecal indicator bacteria are the major contributors of poor drinking water quality and may harbour opportunistic pathogens. This highlighted survival of organisms to treatment procedures and the possible regrowth as biofilms in plumbing materials. The detection of large proportion of MAR Aeromonas and Pseudomonas species which possessed virulent genes was a cause of concern as these could pose health risks to humans. The data obtained herein may be useful in assessing the health risks associated with the consumption of contaminated water. / PhD (Microbiology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Current competitive status among potable and non-potable use makes the water reuse mandatory. Presently, water reuse is common only for reclaimed water coming from municipal or industrial water treatment plants. In those facilities, the treatment includes disinfection. The disinfection methods widely used are chlorination and Ultra Violet (UV) lamps adapted to the conditions of large volume of municipal and industrial systems. This study proposes a disinfection method adequate to the household level to reuse graywater. The method is called solar disinfection (SODIS), which allows the reuse of graywater even though it contains fecal contamination. In this research, natural sun radiation as a free source of heat and UV radiation was utilized. In a first stage, periods of sun exposure, graywater depth, and cell covers as external factors were studied. In later stages, the graywater temperature (GWT) and the UV radiation effects on the reduction of the microbial indicators were observed. Results showed that graywater depth of five cm had a statistical significant reduction rather than ten cm depth (p = 0.0035). Plexiglas and poly-vinyl chloride (PVC), as transparent covers, had a statistical significant reduction (p<0.00001) due to the greenhouse effect increasing the GWT. The black cover had the lowest GWT and reduction of the bacterial and viral indicators. This research found different behavior between bacteria and virus reduction by graywater solar disinfection. In order to reduce the concentration of total coliforms, Escheriquia coli (E. coli) and enterococcus to non-detectable levels (<1.0 most probable number, MPN 100 ml⁻¹), a combination of GWT >45 °C, and UV radiation >24 W m⁻² was required. In contrast, coliphage MS-2, as viral indicator, was resistant to different UV radiation magnitudes (up to 50 W m⁻²), but with a GWT >55 °C non-detectable levels (<1.0 plaques forming units, PFU) were reached.

SODIS (Solar Water Disinfection) é uma tecnologia simples para tratamento de água no pontode- uso, sendo uma alternativa importante para disponibilizar água em situações de emergência ou onde não há acesso à água potável. A ação concomitante entre a temperatura e a radiação ultra violeta do sol provoca a morte dos microorganismos presentes na água. Este estudo avaliou a eficiência de inativação de coliformes totais e Escherichia coli pela técnica SODIS para as águas de chuva (coletada em telhado), de poço freático e de manancial superficial (reservatório), sob as condições climáticas de verão de Porto Alegre, RS. Foram ainda, realizados ensaios para verificar se ocorreu o recrescimento dos microorganismos após 24 e 48 horas do término da exposição ao sol. Também foram determinadas as constantes de decaimento das bactérias utilizando a Lei de Chick para representar o declínio dos microorganismos. Os ensaios de SODIS foram realizados em batelada, utilizando garrafas PET transparentes de 1,5 L, expostas ao sol por um período de 6 h. O mesmo número de garrafas era mantido à sombra pelo mesmo período, como controle. As temperaturas do ar e da água e a radiação ultravioleta foram monitoradas ao longo dos ensaios. Os valores médios de remoção de concentrações de E. coli no SODIS nas amostras das águas analisadas variaram entre 98,8 a maior do que 99,99%; para coliformes totais as reduções médias nas amostras variaram entre 90,00 – 99,99%. Não houve recrescimento de microorganismos após 24 e 48 horas seguindo-se ao término da exposição solar. As constantes de decaimento para coliformes totais e E. coli foram, respectivamente, 0,2979 h-1 e 0,9397 h-1, confirmando as observações de que E. coli é mais sensível a desinfecção. Os coeficientes de determinação para a equação da Lei de Chick foram de 0,938 (E. coli) e 0,877 (coliformes totais). Os resultados da pesquisa indicam que as águas de chuva e de poço freático tratadas com SODIS atingiram os padrões microbiológicos recomendados pela Organização Mundial da Saúde, o que não ocorreu com as amostras de água do reservatório superficial estudado. / SODIS (Solar Water Disinfection) is a simple techhnology for point-of-use drinking water treatment, and can be used during emergencies or in sites without running water. The joint action of high temperature and ultraviolet radiation causes the die-off of microrganisms. This study evaluated the removal of total coliforms and Escherichia coli using SODIS to disinfect water from rain (collected in roofs), from well and from surface water (reservoir) under the climate conditions of Porto Alegre, RS. Essays were also conducted to see if bacteria regrowth occurred after 24 and 48 h after the end of the SODIS test. In addition, bacterial decay coefficients were calculated using the Chick´s Law as model. SODIS essays were performed in batch reactors using 1.5 L transparent PET bottles exposed to the sunlight for 6 h.The same number of bottles were kept in the shadow, as a control. Air and water temperatures and ultraviolet radiation were monitored hourly. E. coli mean removals in samples from the three sources of water varied between 98,8% to greater than 99,99%. The mean reductions for total coliforms varied between 90.0% to 99.99%. Microorganism regrowth was not observed after 24 and 48 h. Decay coefficients for coliforms and E. coli were, respectively, 0.2979 h-1 e 0.9397 h-1, confirming the observation that E. coli is more sensitive than total coliforms to SODIS. Coefficients of determination for Chick´s Law equation were 0.938 (E. coli) and 0.877 (total coliform). The results from this research indicate that water from rain and well , but not reservoir, achieved the World´s Health Organization drinking water guidelines for drinking water with low risk of disease acquisition.

O objetivo deste trabalho foi desenvolver um sistema de desinfecção de águas oriundas de esgotos domésticos, no qual seja aproveitado o calor gerado pelo sol, mantendo na água suas características químicas úteis às plantas. O experimento foi desenvolvido em duas etapas, a fim de se verificar sua viabilidade. A primeira etapa foi realizada em laboratório, com amostras de água coletadas no Ribeirão Piracicamirim. Utilizando-se um regulador automático de temperatura, foram realizados testes com o objetivo de verificar a redução de coliformes, sob as temperaturas de 45, 50, 55 e 60°C. Para os testes de quantificação e viabilidade dos ovos de helmintos foi feita a coleta de água residuária, proveniente da Estação de Tratamento de Esgoto (ETE) Piracicamirim. Ao ser encontrada a menor temperatura na qual ocorre a maior redução de coliformes, utilizou-se o mesmo regulador automático de temperatura e procederam-se os testes sob as temperaturas 60, 70, 80, 90 e 100°C, durante o período de 1 hora de exposição. A segunda etapa foi realizada em campo. Foi implantado um sistema composto por placa solar para o aquecimento da água e reservatórios, utilizando como principio a diferença de altura de carga entre os reservatórios de entrada e saída para que a água atingisse a temperatura necessária. Nesta etapa, foram utilizados três reservatórios. No 3° reservatório, foi instalado um mecanismo que permitiu que o tubo conectado a caixa fosse movimentado de modo a ficar mais alto ou mais baixo, de acordo com a temperatura desejada. As amostras onde objetivou-se verificar presença e viabilidade de ovos de helmintos foram submetidas ao processo de separação de resíduos que permitiu posteriormente análise ao microscópio. Ao término do experimento foi realizada a comparação dos resultados e observou-se que nas temperaturas de 55°C e 60°C, o tempo de uma hora foi eficiente para eliminar tanto coliformes totais como Escherichia coli presentes nas amostras em comparação à amostra de caracterização da água testada. Diante disso, realizaram-se testes reduzindo o tempo de exposição das amostras, obtendo-se como resultado o tempo mínimo de 15 minutos à temperatura de 60°C para que fosse alcançado o mesmo resultado obtido com uma hora de exposição. Nas amostras que foram submetidas ao tratamento e incubadas, apenas na amostra submetida a 60°C foi possível a observação de um ovo de helminto, que se verificou infértil. Nas demais amostras correspondentes aos outros tratamentos, não foi possível a recuperação de ovos de helmintos nas lâminas observadas. É possível que durante o processo de limpeza para redução de resíduos nas amostras tenha ocorrido perda de material devido à desintegração da matéria orgânica presente. Diante dos resultados obtidos, pôde-se chegar à conclusão que, apesar do sistema de desinfecção não ter apresentado os resultados esperados, ele atendeu ao objetivo proposto. O sistema deve ser aprimorado para que se chegue a um modelo em que, possa ser utilizado de maneira segura o aproveitamento de águas residuárias para uso em diversos sistemas de irrigação para a agricultura. / The objective of this study was to develop a water disinfection system originated from domestic sewage, which is harnessed the heat generated by the sun, keeping the water their chemical characteristics useful to plants. The experiment was conducted in two stages, in order to verify its viability. The first step was performed in the laboratory, with water samples collected in Piracicamirim brook. Using an automatic temperature regulator, tests were performed in order to verify the reduction in coliform, at temperatures of 45, 50, 55 and 60°C. For the tests of quantification and viability of helminth eggs was made to collect wastewater from the Wastewater Treatment Station (WWTS) Piracicamirim. When found to be the lowest temperature at which happens the greatest reduction in coliform, we used the same automatic temperature regulator and the tests were carried at temperatures 60, 70, 80, 90 and 100°C for a period of 1 hour exposure. The second stage was conducted in the field. A system comprising solar panel to heat the water tank, using principle as the load height difference between the inlet and outlet reservoirs for the water to reach the required temperature has been deployed. In this step, three reservoirs are used. On the 3rd tank was installed a mechanism that allowed the tube to be connected to the box so as to be moved higher or lower, according to the desired temperature. Samples where the objective was to verify the presence and viability of helminth eggs were submitted to the waste separation process which subsequently allowed analysis under the microscope. At the end of experiment was performed to compare the results and it was observed that at temperatures of 55°C and 60°C, the time of one hour was effective to eliminate both total coliforms and Escherichia coli in the samples compared to the sample characterization of the test water. Therefore, tests were conducted by reducing the exposure time of the samples, obtaining as a result a minimum of 15 minutes at a temperature of 60°C time for which achieved the same result was obtained with a one hour exposure. In the samples that were subjected to treatment and incubated, only in the sample treated at 60°C was possible to observe a helminth egg it was found infertile. In the other samples corresponding to other treatments, recovery of helminth eggs in the observed blades was not possible. It is possible that during the cleaning process for waste reduction has occurred in the samples loss of material due to disintegration of the organic matter. Based on these results, we could conclude that despite the disinfection system not producing expected results, he met the objective. The system should be improved in order to arrive at a model that can be used safely harnessing wastewater for use in various irrigation systems for agriculture.

Previous studies have shown that low-income Latinos frequently drink bottled water instead of tap water and might be at increased risk for dental caries from unfluoridated bottled water. The goals of this study were to: 1) determine if a difference exists between grab samples of municipal tap water and bottled water used by families in Nogales, Arizona in chemical and microbial contaminants; 2) understand the risk perceptions these low-income families have about both their publically supplied tap water, bottled/vended water; and 3) examine whether families have adequate fluoride levels in their drinking water for optimal dental health. Tap and bottled water samples were collected from thirty of these households for analysis of drinking-water contaminants regulated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). Bottled water included small (0.5 L) and large (3.8 L), individually sealed water bottles as well as water vended into reusable containers from self-service vending machines or from water stores. Some of the large bottles were purchased sealed, but had been previously opened and partially consumed by study participants. In addition to the 30 households mentioned above, an additional sixty low-income Latino households, who primarily drink bottled water, were also recruited for this study to complete a questionnaire on risk perceptions related to drinking water consumption, water storage practices, and fluoride supplementation. There were no significant differences in the concentration of chemical contaminants between tap, bottled and vended water, and none of the chemical concentrations exceeded USEPA regulations. Escherichia coli (E. coli) was confirmed in 3% (1/30) of tap, 0% (0/8) of sealed bottled, 40% (2/5) of previously opened bottled, and 35% (6/17) of vended water samples. One of the 3 samples collected directly from a vending machine had an E. coli concentration of 0.33 CFU/100 mL. None of the 10 samples collected directly from sealed bottles purchased directly from the store had any E. coli detected. While no significant differences were observed in the chemical quality of water samples, results suggest that secondary contamination in the home contributes to higher levels of E.coli in water from partially consumed larger water bottles or water stored in reusable containers. Families who reported cleaning large reusable water containers with soap or hot water had significantly lower E.coli (p=0.003) in their drinking water than those who rinsed with only water. Respondents viewed bottled water to be significantly safer to consume than tap water (p<0.001). On a Likert scale from 1 (low risk) to 5 (high risk), "drinking tap water in Nogales, Arizona" received an average score of 4.7, which was significantly higher than the average perceived risk of smoking (µ= 3.5, p<0.001) or of "drinking tap water in San Francisco, California" (µ= 3.4, p<0.001), and as risky as "drinking and driving" (µ= 4.8, p=1.00) and "drinking tap water in Nogales, Sonora, Mexico" (µ= 4.8, p=1.00). Additionally, 98% (88/90) of respondents feared that drinking local tap water could result in illness. The majority of respondents (79%, 71/90) did not drink their tap water because of fear of contamination and would drink their tap water if they knew it was safe, regardless of the taste (73%, 66/90).Fluoride was detected in 53% (16/30) of tap-water samples and only in one bottled-water sample. However, only 27% (8/30) of tap-water samples had fluoride levels within the recommended range (0.7-1.2 mg/L) by the American Dental Association for optimally fluoridated water. From multiple logistic regression, children in a household were less likely to have cavities if their parents reported using fluoridated mouthwash (p<0.001) or visited the dentist yearly (p<0.001). None of the participants reported discussing the type of water they drank or fluoride supplementation with any healthcare providers. Results suggest that secondary contamination in the home is contributing to significantly higher levels of bacteria in vended water stored in reusable containers. In addition, fear of illness from contamination of tap water is an important contributing factor to increased use of bottled water. Interventions could be developed to educate families about how to keep their reusable water containers clean, reduce perceived risks associated with tap-water consumption, and emphasize the importance of fluoride supplementation if families continue drinking bottled water.

Background: 884 million people do not have access to clean water, which is a potential contributor to diarrhea (JMP, 2010). The purpose of this study was to examine the potential associations between the occurrence of diarrhea and the levels of turbidity, total coliforms, and Escherichia coli (E. coli), in 185 households in Bonao, Dominican Republic in 2005-2006. Methods: A biweekly water quality dataset and a weekly diarrhea occurrence dataset were merged using three different methods. T-tests and odds ratios were calculated for all three different datasets. Multivariate logistic regression was also conducted. Results: There were 430 cases of diarrhea out of 14,245 observations. In the age-adjusted multivariate logistic regression, turbidity (OR = 1.36; p-value = .012) and total coliforms (OR = .842; p-value = .006) were found to be significant for an association with the occurrence of diarrhea. E. coli was not found to be significant for an association. Conclusions: This study strengthens the evidence supporting a positive association between turbidity and the occurrence of diarrhea. This study also showed a negative association between total coliforms and diarrhea. Future studies are needed to clarify these associations.

SODIS (Solar Water Disinfection) é uma tecnologia simples para tratamento de água no pontode- uso, sendo uma alternativa importante para disponibilizar água em situações de emergência ou onde não há acesso à água potável. A ação concomitante entre a temperatura e a radiação ultra violeta do sol provoca a morte dos microorganismos presentes na água. Este estudo avaliou a eficiência de inativação de coliformes totais e Escherichia coli pela técnica SODIS para as águas de chuva (coletada em telhado), de poço freático e de manancial superficial (reservatório), sob as condições climáticas de verão de Porto Alegre, RS. Foram ainda, realizados ensaios para verificar se ocorreu o recrescimento dos microorganismos após 24 e 48 horas do término da exposição ao sol. Também foram determinadas as constantes de decaimento das bactérias utilizando a Lei de Chick para representar o declínio dos microorganismos. Os ensaios de SODIS foram realizados em batelada, utilizando garrafas PET transparentes de 1,5 L, expostas ao sol por um período de 6 h. O mesmo número de garrafas era mantido à sombra pelo mesmo período, como controle. As temperaturas do ar e da água e a radiação ultravioleta foram monitoradas ao longo dos ensaios. Os valores médios de remoção de concentrações de E. coli no SODIS nas amostras das águas analisadas variaram entre 98,8 a maior do que 99,99%; para coliformes totais as reduções médias nas amostras variaram entre 90,00 – 99,99%. Não houve recrescimento de microorganismos após 24 e 48 horas seguindo-se ao término da exposição solar. As constantes de decaimento para coliformes totais e E. coli foram, respectivamente, 0,2979 h-1 e 0,9397 h-1, confirmando as observações de que E. coli é mais sensível a desinfecção. Os coeficientes de determinação para a equação da Lei de Chick foram de 0,938 (E. coli) e 0,877 (coliformes totais). Os resultados da pesquisa indicam que as águas de chuva e de poço freático tratadas com SODIS atingiram os padrões microbiológicos recomendados pela Organização Mundial da Saúde, o que não ocorreu com as amostras de água do reservatório superficial estudado. / SODIS (Solar Water Disinfection) is a simple techhnology for point-of-use drinking water treatment, and can be used during emergencies or in sites without running water. The joint action of high temperature and ultraviolet radiation causes the die-off of microrganisms. This study evaluated the removal of total coliforms and Escherichia coli using SODIS to disinfect water from rain (collected in roofs), from well and from surface water (reservoir) under the climate conditions of Porto Alegre, RS. Essays were also conducted to see if bacteria regrowth occurred after 24 and 48 h after the end of the SODIS test. In addition, bacterial decay coefficients were calculated using the Chick´s Law as model. SODIS essays were performed in batch reactors using 1.5 L transparent PET bottles exposed to the sunlight for 6 h.The same number of bottles were kept in the shadow, as a control. Air and water temperatures and ultraviolet radiation were monitored hourly. E. coli mean removals in samples from the three sources of water varied between 98,8% to greater than 99,99%. The mean reductions for total coliforms varied between 90.0% to 99.99%. Microorganism regrowth was not observed after 24 and 48 h. Decay coefficients for coliforms and E. coli were, respectively, 0.2979 h-1 e 0.9397 h-1, confirming the observation that E. coli is more sensitive than total coliforms to SODIS. Coefficients of determination for Chick´s Law equation were 0.938 (E. coli) and 0.877 (total coliform). The results from this research indicate that water from rain and well , but not reservoir, achieved the World´s Health Organization drinking water guidelines for drinking water with low risk of disease acquisition.

SODIS (Solar Water Disinfection) é uma tecnologia simples para tratamento de água no pontode- uso, sendo uma alternativa importante para disponibilizar água em situações de emergência ou onde não há acesso à água potável. A ação concomitante entre a temperatura e a radiação ultra violeta do sol provoca a morte dos microorganismos presentes na água. Este estudo avaliou a eficiência de inativação de coliformes totais e Escherichia coli pela técnica SODIS para as águas de chuva (coletada em telhado), de poço freático e de manancial superficial (reservatório), sob as condições climáticas de verão de Porto Alegre, RS. Foram ainda, realizados ensaios para verificar se ocorreu o recrescimento dos microorganismos após 24 e 48 horas do término da exposição ao sol. Também foram determinadas as constantes de decaimento das bactérias utilizando a Lei de Chick para representar o declínio dos microorganismos. Os ensaios de SODIS foram realizados em batelada, utilizando garrafas PET transparentes de 1,5 L, expostas ao sol por um período de 6 h. O mesmo número de garrafas era mantido à sombra pelo mesmo período, como controle. As temperaturas do ar e da água e a radiação ultravioleta foram monitoradas ao longo dos ensaios. Os valores médios de remoção de concentrações de E. coli no SODIS nas amostras das águas analisadas variaram entre 98,8 a maior do que 99,99%; para coliformes totais as reduções médias nas amostras variaram entre 90,00 – 99,99%. Não houve recrescimento de microorganismos após 24 e 48 horas seguindo-se ao término da exposição solar. As constantes de decaimento para coliformes totais e E. coli foram, respectivamente, 0,2979 h-1 e 0,9397 h-1, confirmando as observações de que E. coli é mais sensível a desinfecção. Os coeficientes de determinação para a equação da Lei de Chick foram de 0,938 (E. coli) e 0,877 (coliformes totais). Os resultados da pesquisa indicam que as águas de chuva e de poço freático tratadas com SODIS atingiram os padrões microbiológicos recomendados pela Organização Mundial da Saúde, o que não ocorreu com as amostras de água do reservatório superficial estudado. / SODIS (Solar Water Disinfection) is a simple techhnology for point-of-use drinking water treatment, and can be used during emergencies or in sites without running water. The joint action of high temperature and ultraviolet radiation causes the die-off of microrganisms. This study evaluated the removal of total coliforms and Escherichia coli using SODIS to disinfect water from rain (collected in roofs), from well and from surface water (reservoir) under the climate conditions of Porto Alegre, RS. Essays were also conducted to see if bacteria regrowth occurred after 24 and 48 h after the end of the SODIS test. In addition, bacterial decay coefficients were calculated using the Chick´s Law as model. SODIS essays were performed in batch reactors using 1.5 L transparent PET bottles exposed to the sunlight for 6 h.The same number of bottles were kept in the shadow, as a control. Air and water temperatures and ultraviolet radiation were monitored hourly. E. coli mean removals in samples from the three sources of water varied between 98,8% to greater than 99,99%. The mean reductions for total coliforms varied between 90.0% to 99.99%. Microorganism regrowth was not observed after 24 and 48 h. Decay coefficients for coliforms and E. coli were, respectively, 0.2979 h-1 e 0.9397 h-1, confirming the observation that E. coli is more sensitive than total coliforms to SODIS. Coefficients of determination for Chick´s Law equation were 0.938 (E. coli) and 0.877 (total coliform). The results from this research indicate that water from rain and well , but not reservoir, achieved the World´s Health Organization drinking water guidelines for drinking water with low risk of disease acquisition.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:23:25Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2005-06-30Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T19:29:23Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 greghi_sq_me_arafcf.pdf: 1181637 bytes, checksum: 0cd9fb57685ecbaa16af28a52eff747e (MD5) / Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP) / A água de consumo humano é um dos importantes veículos de enfermidades diarréicas de natureza infecciosa, o que torna primordial a avaliação da sua qualidade microbiológica. Métodos que permitam a identificação de bactérias indicadoras, como os coliformes, são preferidos para estas análises, pois sua presença indica a possível existência de patógenos. Como existem diversos métodos que podem ser utilizados para esta finalidade, o objetivo deste estudo foi comparar a eficiência dos métodos rápidos Colilert (Idexx) (TSD-C) e Readycult Coliformes (Merck) (TSD-R) com a Técnica de Fermentação em Tubos Múltiplos (TFTM), para a determinação de bactérias coliformes totais, coliformes fecais, em amostras de águas de diversas origens. Foram analisadas 219 amostras divididas em 3 grupos águas de sistemas de abastecimento público, águas de superfície e águas subterrâneas, que foram coletadas no período de dezembro de 2002 a junho de 2003. Para a quantificação de coliformes totais observou-se nos métodos Colilert e Readycult que a sensibilidade e a especificidade foram altas, (> 95%), e o coeficiente kappa foi muito próximo de 1, indicando concordância ótima entre estas técnicas e a TFTM. Para a determinação de coliformes fecais observou-se que a especificidade foi máxima (100%) em ambos os métodos rápidos, a sensibilidade foi alta para o método Readycult (87%), mas menor para o método Colilert (> 76%); o coeficiente kappa foi alto para o método Readycult (0,85), e menor para o método Colilert (0,74) indicando concordâncias ótima e boa, respectivamente. O uso destas técnicas permite a obtenção de resultados em 24 horas, representando grande vantagem pela rapidez e a possibilidade de correção de problemas existentes, principalmente em sistemas de abastecimento. / The water used for human intake is one of the most important vehicles for infective diarrheic diseases, which make the evaluation of its microbiological quality fundamental. Methods that allow the identification of indicative bacteria are preferred for these types of analyses. The presence of faeces contamination such as coliformes, indicates the possible existence of pathogens. Since there are several methods that could be used for this purpose, the objective of this study was to compare the efficiency of the quick methods. The methods Colilert (Idexx) (DST-C) and Readycult Coliforms (Merck) (DST-R) with the Technique of Fermentation in Multiple Tubes (TFTM), were considered for the determination of total coliform, fecal coliforms, in samples of water from several sources. The study analyzed 219 samples collected in the period between December 2002 and June 2003. These samples were divided into 3 groups: general public/ water supply systems; surface waters and underground waters. Colilert and Readyculty methods were used to quantify total coliforms contamination. Sensibility and specificity were high, over 95%. The kappa coefficient was verging on 1, indicating a positive correlation between these techniques and TFTM. To determine fecal contamination it was noticed that the specificity was at it's maximum (100%) in both quick methods and the sensibility was high for the Readycult method (87%), but slightly lower for the Colilert, over 76%. The kappa coefficient was high for the Readycult method (0,85), and lower for the Colilert methods (0,74), indicating a positive correlation. The use of these techniques enables the ability obtain the results in 24 hours, offering great advantages in its speed and the possibility of correcting existing problems, in corrent water supply systems.