One must consider cost effectiveness when deciding how resources within the health sector should be distributed. Quality adjusted life years (QALYs) are used to measure the value of different medical treatments. QALY is based on utility maximization theory, which suggests that a QALY is always a QALY regardless of who receives it. Therefore, a produced QALY is worth the same regardless of the age or the initial health of the patient. Previous research has shown that these assumptions do not seem to fit the real preferences of individuals. Further, there are different methods of acquiring QALYs that give different outcomes. Two of these methods are Time Trade Off (TTO), in which respondents are confronted with a valuation of health change in time, and Person Trade Off (PTO), where respondents are confronted with a valuation in persons. Arguably, PTO is the preferred method that takes greater account of how individuals wish to allocate the resources of the society. From a distribution perspective focusing on age and initial health status, this paper aims to empirically identify the differences between TTO and PTO considering the measurement of preferences for life quality. The aim is also to examine whether the results obtained are consistent with the theoretical assumptions that are required for the preference to be accepted as a cardinal utility. A quantitative survey was carried out with 58 medical and 61 economics students. Half of the students received PTO and the other half TTO questions. The data collected was analyzed comparing the methods, the two student groups and men against women. The results from the survey show that, both with TTO and PTO, respondents on average believe that patients who are at a lower initial health level should be given priority over patients who are at a higher initial health level, and younger patients should be given priority over older patients. No significant differences were seen between PTO and TTO when it came to the age of the patient. Conversely, there was a significant difference between the methods for the valuation based on initial health status of patients. Measured with PTO a treatment for patients who are at a lower initial level is valued 28% higher than a treatment for those patients who are at a higher initial level, while the corresponding figure for TTO was 8%. Between medical students and economic students, there were significant differences in the question of age in the PTO. Between men and women differences were found in both methods. / Kostnadseffektivitet är en av faktorerna som ska tas i beaktande vid beslut om hur resurser inom hälso- och sjukvården ska fördelas. Kvalitetsjusterade levnadsår (QALY) används för att mäta effekten av olika insatser. Måttet baseras på nyttomaximeringsteori vilket leder till att en QALY alltid är en QALY oavsett vem den tillfaller - med andra ord är en QALY som produceras hos en patient lika mycket värd oavsett exempelvis patientens ålder eller initiala tillstånd. Dessa antaganden har i tidigare undersökningar visat sig stämma dåligt med individers preferenser men olika metoder för att ta fram QALY verkar ta olika mycket hänsyn till dem. Två av flera metoder är Time Trade Off (TTO), där respondenter ställs inför en värdering av hälsoförändringar i tid och Person Trade Off (PTO) där respondenter ställs inför en värdering i personer. PTO har påståtts vara en mer rättvisande metod som tar större hänsyn till hur individer vill att samhälleliga resurser ska fördelas. Denna uppsats syftar till att, utifrån ett fördelningsperspektiv med fokus på ålder och initialt hälsotillstånd, empiriskt kartlägga förekomsten av skillnader i preferenser för livskvalitet mätt med PTO respektive TTO, samt att undersöka om de erhållna resultaten överensstämmer med de teoretiska grundantagandena som krävs för att preferenser ska accepteras som kardinala nyttor. För att svara mot syftet utfördes en kvantitativ undersökning på 58 läkar- samt 61 ekonomistudenter. Hälften av studenterna fick PTO-frågor och den andra hälften TTO-frågor. En statistisk bearbetning av insamlad data har gjorts där svaren har jämförts mellan metoderna samt mellan läkar- och ekonomistudenter och kvinnor och män. Resultaten från undersökningen visar att både med TTO och PTO anser respondenterna att patienter som befinner sig på en lägre initial nivå ska prioriteras framför patienter som befinner sig på en högre initial nivå samt yngre patienter ska prioriteras framför äldre patienter. Vad gäller hänsyn till patienters ålder uppmättes inga signifikanta skillnader mellan PTO och TTO. Däremot uppmättes en signifikant skillnad mellan metoderna vad gäller hänsyn till initialt hälsotillstånd hos patienter. Mätt med PTO värderas en behandling för de patienter som befinner sig på en lägre initial nivå 28 % högre än en behandling för de patienter som befinner sig på en högre initial nivå medan motsvarande siffra för TTO var 8%. Mellan läkare och ekonomer fanns signifikanta skillnader i frågan gällande ålder i PTO och mellan kvinnor och män återfanns skillnader i båda metoder.

Syftet med vår studie var att undersöka hur faktorerna tillgångsstruktur, lönsamhet, företagsstorlek och tillväxt kan förklara variationer i svenska företags skuldsättning. Studien syftade också till att undersöka skillnader i faktorernas förklaringskapacitet mellan olika sektorer. Utifrån tidigare studier och teorier om faktorernas förväntade relation till företags skuldsättning utarbetade vi egna arbetshypoteser över våra förväntade samband. För att analysera hur våra valda faktorer kan förklara variationen i företags skuldsättning utförde vi regressionsanalyser med två definitioner av skuldsättning som beroende variabel. Sammanlagt samlades data från 59 företag in för en tidsperiod på fem år som legat till grund för de utförda regressionsanalyserna. De slutsatser vi har dragit från vårt resultat är att studiens faktorer i högre grad förklarar företags andel långfristiga skulder än deras totala skulder. Vidare drog vi slutsatsen att studiens fyra faktorer uppnår liknande förklaringsgrader för variationen i skuldsättning som tidigare studier genomförda i andra länder. Det här innebär att faktorerna har en generell betydelse för företags val av kapitalstruktur även i Sverige. Av vårt resultat från regressionerna kunde vi även konstatera att faktorernas förklaringsgrad varierar kraftigt mellan de olika sektorerna. Det här gjorde att vi drog slutsatsen att sektorspecifika förutsättningar har stor betydelse, både för skillnaderna i faktorernas förklaringskapacitet men också för företags val av kapitalstruktur generellt.

This paper contains two parts. First, we study the decoy effect (especially for the compromise decoy effect) by the experiments where the subjects face the trade-off of inflation and unemployment. As earlier studies show that the compromise decoy is not good as dominated decoy, we try to explore factors of determining compromise effect. Second, we investigate the factors affecting the subjects¡¦ preference over unemployment and inflation. In Part 1, we explore how to enhance the compromise decoy effect by changing the relative location among target, compromise, and decoy. It emerges that the distance between target and decoy, the distance between target and competitor, and the existence of the dominated decoy all affect the size of the compromise decoy effect. In Part 2, we explore the relation of subjects¡¦ preference over inflation and unemployment and their personal characteristics, such as location of hometown, the attitude toward risk, political participation, ideology, household income, knowledge of related terminology, whether to take related course or not, and friends¡¦ and relatives¡¦ unemployment status, and so on. Though the direction of effects is in line with our conjecture, the level of significance is not high enough.

In project scheduling, the activity durations can often be reduced by dedicating additional resources. Time/Cost Trade-off Problem considers the compromise between the total cost and project duration. The discrete version of the problem assumes a number of time/cost pairs, so called modes, and selects a mode for each activity. In this thesis we consider the Discrete Time/Cost Trade-off Problem. We first study the Deadline Problem, i.e., the problem of minimizing total cost subject to a deadline on project duration. To solve the Deadline Problem, we propose several optimization and approximation algorithms that are based on optimal Linear Programming Relaxation solutions. We then analyze the problem of generating all efficient solutions, and propose an approach that uses the successive solutions of the Deadline Problem. Our computational results on large-sized problem instances have revealed the satisfactory behavior of our algorithms.

In this thesis, we consider a discrete time/cost trade-off problem with a single nonrenewable resource. We assume the resource is released at some prespecified time points and at some prespecified quantities. We also assume that the costs due to the activities are incurred at their completions. Our aim is to minimize total project completion time. We formulate the problem as a pure integer programming model. We show that the problem is strongly NP-hard. We find lower bounds by pure linear programming and mixed integer linear programming relaxations of the model. We develop three heuristic procedures using the optimal solutions of mixed integer linear program and pure linear program. The results of our computational study reveal the satisfactory performance of our heuristic procedures.

In this study, we consider a resource investment problem with time/resource trade-offs in project environments. We assume each mode of an activity is characterized by its processing time and resource requirement and there is a single renewable resource. Our aim is to minimize the maximum resource usage, hence the total amount invested for the single resource. We formulate the problem as a mixed integer linear model and find optimal solutions for small sized problem instances. We propose several lower bounding procedures to find high quality estimates on the optimal resource investment cost. We use our lower bounds to evaluate the performance of our heuristic procedures. The results of our computational experiments have revealed the satisfactory performances of our lower bounds and heuristic procedures. Projects, Resource Investment Time/Resource Trade-off, Bounding Procedures

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This research thesis presents the development of a novel Lean Knowledge Life Cycle (LeanKLC) framework to support the transformation into a Lean Product Development (LeanPD) knowledge environment. The LeanKLC framework introduces a baseline model to understand the three dimensions of knowledge management in product development as well as its contextualisation with acclaimed LeanPD process models. The LeanKLC framework comprises 23 tasks, each accomplished in one of the seven key stages, these being: knowledge identification, previous knowledge capture, knowledge representation, knowledge sharing, knowledge integration, knowledge use and provision and dynamic knowledge capture. The rigorous research methodology employed to develop the LeanKLC framework entailed extensive data collection starting with a literature review to highlight the gap in the current body of knowledge. Additionally, industrial field research provides empirical evidence on the current industrial perspectives and challenges in managing product development knowledge. This research was part of a European FP7 project entitled Lean Product and Process Development (LeanPPD), which provided the opportunity to involve industrial collaborators in action research to support practical aspects during the LeanKLC framework development. The synthesis with the current LeanPD paradigm is accomplished by demonstrating the LeanKLC stages in two distinct streams related to the development of A3 thinking for problem solving and the development of trade-off curves to facilitate set based design at the conceptual stage. The novel LeanKLC is validated in two case studies providing the industry with detailed insights on real product development applications. In particular this research highlights that the LeanPD knowledge environment is a wide subject area that has not yet been thoroughly understood and that industry engagement in empirical research is vital in order to realise any form of LeanPD transformation.

This dissertation treats a topic that has received increasing attention as of late, namely that of the environment and in particular increasing levels of CO2 emissions caused by transport. The aim of the dissertation is to explain how a shipper, through various measures, can reduce transport-related CO2 emissions when centralising a distribution system and how this affects the provision of cost efficient customer service. Earlier research has stated that this type of structural change is considered unfavourable from an environmental viewpoint as it increases the amount of transport work generated by the system and thereby transport-related CO2 emissions. The argument that is made in this dissertation, however, is that transport work is only one aspect to consider when evaluating how transport-related CO2 emissions are affected by this type of structural change. The reason for this being that a change in structure and management of the same can enable a shipper to make other changes within the distribution system that can prove beneficial from an environmental perspective as they decrease the amount of CO2 emissions per tonne kilometre. Theoretically, the dissertation has its foundation in two different areas in logistics research. The first area concerns logistics and the environment, where the frame of reference examines measures discussed in previous research with reference to how a shipper can reduce CO2 emissions related to transport. The second area treated in the frame of reference concerns how costs and service are affected by the structural change of centralising a distribution system and how this relates to the measures discussed in the first part of the framework. From a methodological viewpoint, the dissertation is based on case studies. These are presented in four appended manuscripts (a licentiate thesis and three papers), where the results of these studies are used as empirical input for the synthesising analysis that is led in the dissertation. A key deliverable from the research presented in this dissertation is a classification of measures that increase transport-related CO2 emissions and measures that decrease transport-related CO2 emissions when a distribution system is centralised. By presenting this classification, the dissertation extends previous research on the environmental impact of various logistics strategies, where centralised distribution is an example of such a strategy. With regards to this classification, it is concluded that a shipper that seeks to centralise its distribution system in a more CO2 efficient manner will aim to identify a structural configuration that minimises the increase in transport work. This is imperative as there is a close link between transport work and CO2 emissions. Hence, a CO2 efficient centralised distribution system will include more central warehouses than that advocated by earlier research on centralised distribution. This in turn implies that a shipper may not reach the full potential in economies of scale as advocated in earlier research. However, such a configuration will simultaneously lead to less transport work, whereby a shipper will be able to offset the increase in transport work by employing measures that decrease the amount of transport-related CO2 emissions per amount of transport work. The results also indicate that in addition to reducing transport-related CO2 emissions, some of these measures come with a cost incentive. By employing such measures, a shipper can come to compensate for the potential loss in economies of scale caused by employing a structural configuration that seeks to minimise the increase in transport work rather than to maximise economies of scale. By this means, the dissertation contributes to research on centralised distribution by considering how a reduction in transport-related CO2 emissions is interrelated with the provision of cost efficient customer service.