The popularity of soccer throughout the world has led to the demand for a scientific approach to the preparation of players for competitive matches. Although previous researchers have attempted to understand the training demands undertaken by soccer players, limited information is known regarding the structure of training in soccer. At present research has focused on the frequency and duration of soccer training without using both objective and subjective measures of training load to systematically evaluate training practices in elite teams. Little is also known regarding the periodisation strategies employed by elite soccer teams across a competitive season and whether they follow traditional models of periodisation. With this in mind, the primary aim of this thesis is to therefore characterise the current training periodisation practices that exist in elite soccer using applied methods of training load assessment. The aim of the first study (Chapter 3) was to evaluate the use of Global Positioning Devices (GPS) for the measurement of soccer-specific activities to provide objective data for training load assessment. Findings from this study were applied to study 3 (Chapter 5) of the thesis. Firstly, a soccer-specific movement course was designed based on the movements exhibited by an elite soccer player during a competitive match using a multi-camera tracking system (ProZone®). Two moderately trained males performed 10 bouts of the soccer-specific track following familiarisation and a 10 minute standardised warm up. Both subjects wore two 10Hz GPS units inside a custom-made vest during all bouts of the track to determine both reliability and inter-unit reliability of the GPS devices. Data analysis revealed the reliability of the GPS devices was good for distance covered at lower velocities (0 – 4 m/s; CV% = 0.6 – 3.6%). However when the velocity of movement increased (> 4 m/s), the reliability of the units decreased (mean change from 13.8 to 33.6 CV%). Both total distance (mean CV% = 1.1%) and max speed (mean CV% = 2.7%) were both found to be highly reliable variables. However the devices demonstrated high levels of inter-unit reliability error due to an increase in systematic error with random distribution of data points between both devices for all variables measured. The data suggested that 10Hz GPS devices are reliable for the measurement of lower velocity (0 – 4 m/s) running. However, care must be taken when analysing data in higher velocity bands (> 4 m/s) due to the high ii error rates observed. The high inter-unit reliability error also suggests that 10Hz GPS devices cannot be used interchangeably between players in order to minimise the associated error. The aim of the second study (Chapter 4) was to quantify the reliability and validity of a portable vertical jump assessment tool (Optojump®) for use in the applied setting. Vertical jump assessment was utilised as a measurement tool to analyse the effect of training load on the neuromuscular system that was evaluated in study 4 (Chapter 6) of the thesis. Eleven healthy male subjects were familiarised to perform four separate common types of vertical jump test: countermovement with arm swing (CMJ-W), countermovement without arm swing (CMJ-WO), squat jump (SJ) and drop jump (DJ). Contact time, flight time and jump height were selected as variables for the study. For reliability assessment, all subjects performed 3 efforts of each jump type across 5 identical testing sessions (separated by minimum of 2 days). For validity assessment, subjects were asked to perform the same jump modalities as the previous investigation on one occasion while data was simultaneously collected from both a force plate (criterion instrument) and the Optojump photocells. The data revealed the Optojump device was highly reliable for the assessment of jump flight and height for CMJ-W, CMJ-WO, SJ and DJ (all CV% = 3.2 and 5.6%). However reliability of the device was reduced for the measurement of contact time with the DJ (CV% = 13.9%). Validity data revealed that all jump types and variables were highly valid in comparison to the force plate criterion measure (SEE% = < 1%, Pearsons correlation = r > 0.99). This study revealed that the Optojump device is highly reliable and valid for all jump types and variables, with the exception of contact time for DJ. Therefore the Optojump system may be used with confidence to detect within-group changes in applied assessments of vertical jump performance. Due to the high cost and lack of portability of laboratory-based force plates, the Optojump system is a viable alternative for accurate jump measurement and neuromuscular assessment. The CMJ-WO jump assessment was chosen for study 4 for comparison with previous research. The aim of the third study (Chapter 5) was to quantify the periodisation strategies employed by an elite professional soccer team throughout a competitive season. Training load data was collected from 37 elite outfield soccer players at one professional English soccer team over a 45 week period during the 2011-2012 domestic season. All players wore iii global positioning system (GPS) devices, heart rate (HR) belts and were asked to provide a rating of perceived exertion (RPE) for each training session to generate training load data. Players were assigned to one of 5 positional groups: central defender (CD), wide defender (WD), central midfielder (CM), wide midfielder (WM) and attacker (AT). The data was separated into the pre-season (6 weeks duration) and in-season (39 weeks duration) phases in order to investigate specific training periods recognised within the annual plan. The pre-season phase was further separated into weekly blocks for analysis of the structure employed in each specific microcycle. The in-season phase was divided into 6 x 6 week blocks for analysis of mesocycle structure. Within the in-season data, three separate microcycles (weeks 7, 24 and 39) were selected consisting of the same weekly training schedules to determine whether differences in microcycle training load pattern existed. In addition, the training data within a given microcycle was analysed to investigate the loading patterns in relation to number of days away from the competitive match fixture. Linear mixed modelling analysis revealed significant differences for total distance and average HR (P < 0.05) between period 1 with periods 3 and 6 during training mesocycles. However no differences were found for the remaining training variables during both pre-season and in-season microcycles (P > 0.05). Training load variables were significantly reduced on match day (MD) -1 (P < 0.05) but remained similar across MD-2, MD-3 and MD-5 (P > 0.05) during in-season microcycles. CM players generally covered the most total distance compared to other positions. Defenders reported higher internal load values (average HR and RPE) compared to attackers during in-season training phases but such differences were not evident during pre-season. This study revealed that training load doesn’t appear to be systematically periodised across a competitive season in an elite soccer team. This may have practical implications for training planning, as monotonous training load prescription may lead to maladaptation in soccer players during a competitive season. This was the first study to systematically evaluate periodisation strategies in an elite soccer team, but further work is required to determine such practices at different soccer teams. The aim of the fourth study (Chapter 6) was to determine the neuromuscular response to a microcycle of soccer training in elite soccer players using vertical jump assessment via the Optojump device. Nine elite level youth soccer players from an U18 soccer academy team were recruited for the study. The players underwent four separate on-field soccer training sessions following familiarisation of all testing procedures.

Nós investigamos os efeitos do modelo de periodização de cargas seletivas (MPCS) sobre a modulação autonômica da variabilidade da freqüência cardíaca (VFC) e marcadores de estresse endógenos, antes e após um período de competição, em jogadores de voleibol (N=32). O protocolo experimental para a avaliação da VFC consistiu do uso da análise espectral das séries temporais compostas dos intervalos R-R derivados do eletrocardiograma obtidos na posição supina e durante o teste de inclinação (tilt test). Os níveis dos marcadores de estresse foram determinados pela quantificação da concentração plasmática de catecolaminas endógenas, cortisol e testosterona livre. Os resultados não demonstraram alterações na VFC antes e após o período de competição. Em contraste, a quantificação da concentração plasmática dos marcadores de estresse endógenos revelou reduções nos níveis de catecolaminas totais, noradrenalina e cortisol. Estas mudanças foram acompanhadas por aumentos na concentração de testosterona livre e na razão testosterona/cortisol. Em conclusão, nossos resultados demonstraram que o MPCS não alterou a modulação autonômica da VFC, mas promoveu adaptações benéficas aos atletas, incluindo mudanças positivas na concentração plasmática dos marcadores de estresse endógenos analisados. A ausência de alterações na VFC indica que não houve relação direta entre modulação autonômica cardíaca e marcadores de estresse endógenos no presente estudo. / We investigated the effects of selective loads of periodization model (SLPM) on autonomic modulation of heart rate variability (HRV) and endogenous stress markers before and after a competition period in volleyball players (N=32). The experimental protocol for the evaluation of HRV consisted of using spectral analysis of time series composed of the R-R intervals derived from electrocardiogram obtained in the supine position and during the tilt test. Stress marker levels were determined by quantifying the plasma concentration of endogenous catecholamines, cortisol and free testosterone. The results showed no changes between the levels of HRV before and after a competition period. In contrast, the quantification of the plasma concentration of endogenous stress markers revealed reductions in the levels of total catecholamines, noradrenaline and cortisol. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that the SLPM did not change the cardiac autonomic modulation of HRV, but promoted beneficial adaptations in athletes, including positive changes in the plasma concentration of the endogenous stress markers. The absence of changes in HRV indicates that there is no direct relationship between cardiac autonomic modulation and endogenous stress markers in the present study.

Orientador: Orival Andries Junior / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Educação Fisica / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-11T03:55:13Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Marinho_PauloCezardaSilva_D.pdf: 1681894 bytes, checksum: fe61ea24b5108bb19d4b947bfefe3bad (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008 / Resumo: O desporto de alto nível na atualidade exige uma constante intensificação do processo de treinamento com o propósito de continuar a elevação do desempenho competitivo. Uma das formas de intensificá-lo refere-se à organização das cargas de forma concentrada típica do sistema de periodização em blocos. Embora documentado na literatura, este sistema não apresenta evidências de experimentos concretizados com a natação. Diante de tal situação o presente estudo teve como objetivo propor um modelo de treinamento em blocos adaptado a nadadores velocistas de alto nível e analisar os efeitos decorrentes de sua utilização sobre os indicadores internos e externos relacionados com o desempenho competitivo, tais como a força máxima, capacidade aeróbia e anaeróbia, força propulsora, velocidade média, freqüência e comprimento de braçadas em 50 e 100m. Foram selecionados três nadadores velocistas de alto nível (S1, S2 e S3) por atenderem aos critérios estabelecidos previamente elaborados com base no International Point Score (IPS). O S1, S2 e S3 possuíam idades, no momento do estudo, iguais a 19, 21 e 24 anos respectivamente. Os sujeitos foram submetidos à um macrociclo composto por 18 semanas. Neste período foram inseridos três momentos de controle com o intuito de identificar possíveis alterações nos indicadores relacionados com o desempenho. Os efeitos do treinamento sobre o desempenho competitivo foram mensurados comparando-se os resultados obtidos nas provas de 50 e 100m do ano de 2004 com o do ano de 2005. Os resultados decorrentes da utilização do modelo proposto mostraram melhoras substanciais em alguns dos indicadores relacionados com o desempenho coincidindo exatamente com a etapa competitiva. A força máxima do S1 apresentou um crescimento de 60,61% a do S2 de 24,14% e a do S3 de 26%. Em relação a capacidade aeróbia o S1, S2 e S3 mostraram aumentos iguais a 4,45, 3,22 e 4,58% respectivamente. No tocante a capacidade anaeróbia o S1 mostrou um aumento de 26,31%, o S2 de 30,7% e o S3 de 36,6%. Aumentos substanciais na força propulsora foram encontrados somente para o S1 e S3 (12,96 e 4,38% respectivamente). A velocidade média referente a distância de 50m apresentou aumentos substanciais em todos os sujeitos estudados, sendo para o S1, S2 e S3 iguais a 1,09, 2,52 e 3,14% respectivamente. Analisando o comportamento da relação freqüência e comprimento de braçadas, responsável pelos ganhos substanciais na velocidade média em 50m, constatou-se que esta não mostrou um padrão definido. No tocante a distância de 100m o S1 apresentou um aumento de 2,52% na velocidade média, o S2 de 6,5% e o S3 de 2,34%. Os ganhos na velocidade média em 100m decorreram de um acentuado aumento na freqüência de braçadas e uma diminuição em seu comprimento. Em se tratando do desempenho competitivo em 50m o S1 e S3 apresentaram quedas no tempo de prova iguais a 1,72 e 1,73% respectivamente. Em relação ao desempenho competitivo em 100m a queda no tempo de prova do S1 foi igual a 0,63% e do S2 a 0,7%. O S2 foi o único sujeito que não apresentou melhoras no desempenho competitivo, no entanto, os resultados obtidos estiveram muito próximos de suas melhores marcas. Diante dos resultados obtidos pode-se assumir que o modelo de treinamento proposto no presente estudo se mostrou eficaz / Abstract: High level sports demand a constant intensification of their training process to improve their competitive performance standards. One of the ways to intensify their outcomes is the organization of concentrated loads, typically applied by the Block Periodization System. Although reported in the literature, such system does not have evidences of its application in swimming. Facing such situation, this research proposes a block training model adapted to high level sprint swimmers and the analysis of its main effects on externals and internal indicators related to sport performance, as maximum force, aerobic capacity, anaerobic capacity, average speed, stroke frequency and stroke length in 50 and 100 m. Three high level swimmers were selected, according to pre-established criteria based on the International Point Score (IPS). The S1, S2 e S3 ages were 19, 21 and 24 respectively. The swimmers were submitted to a macrocycle of 18 weeks. During this period they were included 3 evaluations, with the purpose to identify changes on externals and internal indicators related to sport performance. The main effects training on the competitive performance was resultant of the comparison between the results on the 50 and 100m freestyle events in the 2004 with the results in the 2005. The current results of the proposed training model shown substantial improvements in some indicators related to sports performance coinciding accurately with the competitive phase. The S1, S2 and S3¿s maximum force presented an improvement of the 60,61%, 24,14% and 26% respectively. In relation the aerobic capacity the S1, S2 and S3 had shown increases 4,45, 3,22 and 4,58% respectively. In regards to anaerobic capacity the S1 showed a 26,31% increase, the S2 of 30,7% and the S3 of 36,6%. Substantial increases in the propulsive force had only been found for the S1 and S3 (12,96 and 4.38% respectively). The average speed in the distance of 50m presented substantial increases in all subjects studied. To S1 the value was 1,09%, to S2 2,52% and to S3 3,14%. Analyzing the behavior of the relation between stroke frequency and stroke length responsible for the substantial improvements in the average speed in 50m, evidenced that this did not show a definite standard. In regards to distance of 100m, the S1 presented an increase of 2,52% in the average speed, the S2 of 6,5% and the S3 of 2,34%. The improvements in the average speed in 100m had elapsed of one marked increase in the stroke frequency and a reduction in stroke length. In regards to competitive performance in 50m the S1 and S3 they had respectively presented a decrease in the race¿s time equal 1,72 and 1.73%. In relation to the competitive performance in 100m the decrease in the race¿s time was of the S1 equal 0,63% and of the S2 0,7%. The S2 was the only that did not present improvements in the competitive performance, however, the gotten results had been very next to its better marks. In accordance with these results we can assumed that the training propose in this study, it was shown effective / Doutorado / Ciencia do Desporto / Doutor em Educação Física

Nós investigamos os efeitos do modelo de periodização de cargas seletivas (MPCS) sobre a modulação autonômica da variabilidade da freqüência cardíaca (VFC) e marcadores de estresse endógenos, antes e após um período de competição, em jogadores de voleibol (N=32). O protocolo experimental para a avaliação da VFC consistiu do uso da análise espectral das séries temporais compostas dos intervalos R-R derivados do eletrocardiograma obtidos na posição supina e durante o teste de inclinação (tilt test). Os níveis dos marcadores de estresse foram determinados pela quantificação da concentração plasmática de catecolaminas endógenas, cortisol e testosterona livre. Os resultados não demonstraram alterações na VFC antes e após o período de competição. Em contraste, a quantificação da concentração plasmática dos marcadores de estresse endógenos revelou reduções nos níveis de catecolaminas totais, noradrenalina e cortisol. Estas mudanças foram acompanhadas por aumentos na concentração de testosterona livre e na razão testosterona/cortisol. Em conclusão, nossos resultados demonstraram que o MPCS não alterou a modulação autonômica da VFC, mas promoveu adaptações benéficas aos atletas, incluindo mudanças positivas na concentração plasmática dos marcadores de estresse endógenos analisados. A ausência de alterações na VFC indica que não houve relação direta entre modulação autonômica cardíaca e marcadores de estresse endógenos no presente estudo. / We investigated the effects of selective loads of periodization model (SLPM) on autonomic modulation of heart rate variability (HRV) and endogenous stress markers before and after a competition period in volleyball players (N=32). The experimental protocol for the evaluation of HRV consisted of using spectral analysis of time series composed of the R-R intervals derived from electrocardiogram obtained in the supine position and during the tilt test. Stress marker levels were determined by quantifying the plasma concentration of endogenous catecholamines, cortisol and free testosterone. The results showed no changes between the levels of HRV before and after a competition period. In contrast, the quantification of the plasma concentration of endogenous stress markers revealed reductions in the levels of total catecholamines, noradrenaline and cortisol. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that the SLPM did not change the cardiac autonomic modulation of HRV, but promoted beneficial adaptations in athletes, including positive changes in the plasma concentration of the endogenous stress markers. The absence of changes in HRV indicates that there is no direct relationship between cardiac autonomic modulation and endogenous stress markers in the present study.

O estudo se propôs a investigar em atletas de basquetebol, as adaptações decorrentes da utilização do modelo de cargas seletivas de periodização (SCS) sobre a modulação autonômica da variabilidade da frequência cardíaca (VFC), sensibilidade baroreflexa (SBR), limiar de anaerobiose (LA), marcadores de estresse endógenos e capacidade funcional de membros inferiores (MMII), durante um macrociclo de treinamento. Foram estudados 22 atletas do sexo masculino e as avaliações foram realizadas em quatro momentos específicos do macrociclo (início da etapa de preparação, P1; início e término da segunda etapa de competição, P2 e P3; término da terceira etapa de competição, P4). A VFC foi investigada no domínio do tempo (RMSSD- raiz quadrada da somatória do quadrado das diferenças entre os iR-R adjacentes no registro dividido pelo número de intervalos R-R, menos um, expressa em ms), no domínio da frequência (análise espectral pela transformada rápida de Fourier) e também por meio de análise simbólica. A SBR foi avaliada pelo método da sequencia. Também foram realizados testes ergoespirométricos para determinação do limiar de anaerobiose e exames laboratoriais para dosagens plasmáticas de catecolaminas, cortisol, testosterona livre, ureia e creatinoquinase. Adicionalmente, para determinação da capacidade funcional de MMII, foram avaliadas as capacidades de força muscular (dinamômetria isocinética dos extensores e flexores de joelhos) e potência de salto (plataforma de força). Os resultados demonstraram que o sistema e a estruturação do treinamento utilizada não promoveram mudanças na modulação autonômica da VFC, VPA e SBR em repouso. Por sua vez, houveram alterações nos parâmetros relacionados com o limiar de anaerobiose, sugerindo uma possível melhora da capacidade aeróbia dos atletas. No que diz respeito aos marcadores hormonais, foram observadas reduções na concentração plasmática de catecolaminas e cortisol, que parecem refletir adaptações positivas às cargas de trabalho utilizadas durante o macrociclo de treinamento. Por fim, não foi observada nenhuma diferença nos parâmetros avaliados de força muscular e potência de salto dos atletas, sugerindo que o desempenho destas capacidades físicas, no presente estudo, parece relacionado com a especificidade das cargas de trabalho utilizadas no decorrer do macrociclo e pode não refletir o efeito do programa de treinamento em questão. / We investigated in basketball athletes, adaptations arising from the use of selective loads periodization system (SLS) on the autonomic modulation of heart rate variability (HRV), baroreflex sensitivity (BRS), anaerobic threshold (AT), endogenous stress markers and functional performance during macrocycle training. Twenty two male athletes were evaluated in four specific times of the macrocycle (early preparation period, P1, start and end of the competition period second, P2 and P3; end of the competition period third, P4). HRV was investigated in the time domain (RMSSD- square root of the mean of the squared differences of successive adjacent RR intervals) in the frequency domain (spectral analysis by Fourier Fast Transform) and also through symbolic analysis. The BRS was evaluated by method of sequence. Cardiopulmonary exercise and laboratory tests were also performed to determine the anaerobic threshold, plasma levels of catecholamines, cortisol, free testosterone, urea and creatine kinase. Additionally, muscle strength (isokinetic dynamometer) and jump power (force platform) were evaluated to determine the functional capacity of the lower limbs. The results showed that the training system used did not promote changes in autonomic modulation of HRV and BRS. In turn, there were changes in parameters related to the AT, suggesting possible improvement of the aerobic capacity of athletes. With regard to metabolic markers, reductions were observed in the plasma catecholamines and cortisol, which seem to reflect adjustments positive of the workload used during the training macrocycle. Finally, no difference it was observed in muscle strength and jump power of athletes, suggesting that the performance these physical capacities in the present study, it seems related to the structure and specificity of workloads used during the macrocycle and may not reflect the effectiveness of the training program in question.

O estudo se propôs a investigar em atletas de basquetebol, as adaptações decorrentes da utilização do modelo de cargas seletivas de periodização (SCS) sobre a modulação autonômica da variabilidade da frequência cardíaca (VFC), sensibilidade baroreflexa (SBR), limiar de anaerobiose (LA), marcadores de estresse endógenos e capacidade funcional de membros inferiores (MMII), durante um macrociclo de treinamento. Foram estudados 22 atletas do sexo masculino e as avaliações foram realizadas em quatro momentos específicos do macrociclo (início da etapa de preparação, P1; início e término da segunda etapa de competição, P2 e P3; término da terceira etapa de competição, P4). A VFC foi investigada no domínio do tempo (RMSSD- raiz quadrada da somatória do quadrado das diferenças entre os iR-R adjacentes no registro dividido pelo número de intervalos R-R, menos um, expressa em ms), no domínio da frequência (análise espectral pela transformada rápida de Fourier) e também por meio de análise simbólica. A SBR foi avaliada pelo método da sequencia. Também foram realizados testes ergoespirométricos para determinação do limiar de anaerobiose e exames laboratoriais para dosagens plasmáticas de catecolaminas, cortisol, testosterona livre, ureia e creatinoquinase. Adicionalmente, para determinação da capacidade funcional de MMII, foram avaliadas as capacidades de força muscular (dinamômetria isocinética dos extensores e flexores de joelhos) e potência de salto (plataforma de força). Os resultados demonstraram que o sistema e a estruturação do treinamento utilizada não promoveram mudanças na modulação autonômica da VFC, VPA e SBR em repouso. Por sua vez, houveram alterações nos parâmetros relacionados com o limiar de anaerobiose, sugerindo uma possível melhora da capacidade aeróbia dos atletas. No que diz respeito aos marcadores hormonais, foram observadas reduções na concentração plasmática de catecolaminas e cortisol, que parecem refletir adaptações positivas às cargas de trabalho utilizadas durante o macrociclo de treinamento. Por fim, não foi observada nenhuma diferença nos parâmetros avaliados de força muscular e potência de salto dos atletas, sugerindo que o desempenho destas capacidades físicas, no presente estudo, parece relacionado com a especificidade das cargas de trabalho utilizadas no decorrer do macrociclo e pode não refletir o efeito do programa de treinamento em questão. / We investigated in basketball athletes, adaptations arising from the use of selective loads periodization system (SLS) on the autonomic modulation of heart rate variability (HRV), baroreflex sensitivity (BRS), anaerobic threshold (AT), endogenous stress markers and functional performance during macrocycle training. Twenty two male athletes were evaluated in four specific times of the macrocycle (early preparation period, P1, start and end of the competition period second, P2 and P3; end of the competition period third, P4). HRV was investigated in the time domain (RMSSD- square root of the mean of the squared differences of successive adjacent RR intervals) in the frequency domain (spectral analysis by Fourier Fast Transform) and also through symbolic analysis. The BRS was evaluated by method of sequence. Cardiopulmonary exercise and laboratory tests were also performed to determine the anaerobic threshold, plasma levels of catecholamines, cortisol, free testosterone, urea and creatine kinase. Additionally, muscle strength (isokinetic dynamometer) and jump power (force platform) were evaluated to determine the functional capacity of the lower limbs. The results showed that the training system used did not promote changes in autonomic modulation of HRV and BRS. In turn, there were changes in parameters related to the AT, suggesting possible improvement of the aerobic capacity of athletes. With regard to metabolic markers, reductions were observed in the plasma catecholamines and cortisol, which seem to reflect adjustments positive of the workload used during the training macrocycle. Finally, no difference it was observed in muscle strength and jump power of athletes, suggesting that the performance these physical capacities in the present study, it seems related to the structure and specificity of workloads used during the macrocycle and may not reflect the effectiveness of the training program in question.