Liu, Junyi. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2007. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 76-79). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Table of Content / Abstract --- p.i / Acknowledgement --- p.iii / Table of Content --- p.iv / Chapter Chapter 1 --- Introduction --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1 --- "“Race to the bottom""" --- p.1 / Chapter 1.2 --- The New Context of International Trade --- p.2 / Chapter 1.3 --- Related party trade of Hong Kong --- p.4 / Chapter 1.4 --- Transfer Pricing --- p.6 / Chapter Chapter 2 --- The Theory --- p.9 / Chapter 2.1 --- Introduction --- p.9 / Chapter 2.2 --- Literature Review --- p.10 / Chapter 2.3 --- The Model --- p.16 / Chapter 2.4 --- MNC Manipulation Of Transfer Pricing --- p.20 / Chapter 2.5 --- MNC Manipulation Of Host Country Demand --- p.25 / Chapter 2.6 --- MNC Manipulation Of Explicit Benchmarks On Transfer Prices --- p.28 / Chapter 2.7 --- The Race to the Bottom in International Tax Competition --- p.32 / Chapter 2.8 --- Textbook Model without Transfer Pricing --- p.35 / Chapter 2.9 --- Concluding Remarks --- p.37 / Chapter Chapter 3 --- Empirical Evidence --- p.39 / Chapter 3.1 --- Introduction --- p.39 / Chapter 3.2 --- Related Literature --- p.41 / Chapter 3.3 --- Data and Empirical Specification --- p.44 / Chapter 3.4 --- Empirical Results --- p.51 / Appendix --- p.58 / List of Tables --- p.63 / Table 1 Related Party Trade as a Share of U.S. Imports from Selected Countries and Regions --- p.63 / Table 2 Related Party Trade as a Share of U.S. Exports from Selected Countries and Regions --- p.63 / "Table 3A Top 10 Source Countries for Re-exports via Hong Kong, 2006" --- p.64 / "Table 3B: Top 10 Destinations of Re-exports via Hong Kong, 2006" --- p.64 / Table 4A: Top 10 sources of China's FDI in 2005 --- p.64 / Table 4B: Top 10 sources of China's FDI in 2006 --- p.64 / Table 4C Top 10 sources of China's FDI (January to March 2007) --- p.64 / Table 5 Round Tripping of FDI to the PRC: The Case of U.S. --- p.65 / Table 6 Top 24 Destinations for FDI in 2005 --- p.65 / Table 7 Percentage of foreign firms reporting losses in the PRC --- p.65 / Table 8 43 Countries by region --- p.66 / Table 9 Gross Foreign Productions of U.S. Multinationals by Country from 1997 to 2004 --- p.66 / Table 10 Tax Rates by Country from 1997 to 2004 --- p.67 / Table 11 Original Corruption Index by country from 1997 to 2004 --- p.68 / Table 12 U.S. MNCs' Internal Trade Ratio by country from 1997 to 2004 --- p.69 / Table 13 - OLS Regression of Foreign Productions on Present Tax Rates --- p.70 / Table 14 - OLS Regression of Foreign Productions on Present Tax Rates --- p.71 / Table 15 OLS Regression of Foreign Productions on One-Year-Lag Tax Rate --- p.71 / Table 16 OLS Regression of Foreign Productions on One-Year-Before Tax Rate --- p.72 / Table 17 OLS Regression of Foreign Productions on Corruption A and B --- p.72 / Table 18 OLS Regression of Foreign Productions on Corruption B and C --- p.73 / Table 19 OLS Regression of Tax Rate on Country Dummies --- p.74 / Bibliography --- p.76

<p>Titel: Internprissättning – skattekonsekvenser av internprissättning i multinationella koncerner</p><p>Problem: Beskattningsåret 2007 infördes en regel med krav på att företag i intressegemenskap måste dokumentera grunden för sin internprissättning. Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Develoment har givit ut en samling rekommendationer kring detta. Denna samling behandlar dels förkommande dokumentationskrav men även modeller för hur internprissättning skall upprättas. Ovanstående har utmynnat i följande frågor. Vilka regler och lagar styr över den internationella internprissättningen för bolag i intressegemenskap? Samt hur har Svenska domstolar dömt i fall rörande internprissättning?</p><p>Syfte: Syftet med denna uppsats är att ur ett skatteperspektiv med Sverige som utgångspunkt beskriva vilka lagar och regler som styr den gränsöverskridande internprissättningen, samt att analysera huruvida och i var mån svenska domstolar har tillämpat sig av OECDs riktlinjer för internprissättning i sin bedömning.</p><p>Metod: En kvalitativ undersökning av litteratur, doktrin samt rättsfall inom intresseområdet</p><p>Resultat: Slutsatsen som går att dra av de undersöka rättsfallen är att svenska domstolar har använt sig av OECD:s riktlinjer i sin bedömning.</p> / <p>Title: Transfer pricing, pricing between multinational corporations within an arm lengths distance relationship</p><p>Problem: 2007 the Swedish tax agency introduced a new requirement for companies within an arm lengths distance relationship to document their transfer pricing models. Before 2007, the companies within such relationships were only required to show their documentation if the tax agency conducted an audit. When looking at this new rule two questions emerge; Which are the rules and laws that controls the transfer pricing between companies within an arms length relationship? How has the Swedish court system ruled in the cases that concerned this kind of transfer pricing?</p><p>Purpose: The aim of the thesis is to investigate, from a taxation perspective, the laws and regulations that control the transfer pricing between multinational corporations in an arms length relationship. The thesis also aims to see if and how the Swedish court system uses the OECD guidelines in their ruling.</p><p>Method: The investigation consists of studies of literature, laws and court cases and other related information.</p><p>Result: The analysis has shown proof that the Swedish court system uses the OECD transfer pricing guidelines in their judgement.</p>

<p>Syfte:</p><p>- Att undersöka om OECD:s riktlinjer är vedertagna hos de granskade koncernerna och beskriva vilka internprissättningsmodeller de använder sig av.</p><p>- Att beskriva vilka effekter de undersökta koncernerna försöker uppnå med sin internprissättning.</p><p>- Att undersöka vilken vikt skatteaspekten har för dessa koncerner vid sin internprissättning.</p><p>- Att undersöka hur dessa koncerner dokumenterar sin interprissättning och vilka påföljder de nya dokumentationskraven kommer att få för dem.</p> / <p>Purpose:</p><p>- To examine whether OECD:s guidelines are accepted among the reviewed multinational corporations and to describe what Transfer Pricing models they use.</p><p>- To describe what kind of effects they try to accomplish with their Transfer Pricing.</p><p>- To examine to what degree the tax issue has on Transfer Pricing.</p><p>- To examine how these Multinational Corporations document their Transfer Pricing and how the new demands on documentation will affect them</p>

Utgångspunkten för denna magisteruppsats är en komparativ studie av internationella riktlinjer för dokumentation av internprissättning. Internprissättning reglerar hur närståendetransaktioner inom internationella koncerner skall värderas. Då de inblandade parterna står i intressegemenskap med varandra kan villkoren bakom transaktionerna skilja sig från vad oberoende parter skulle kommit överens om. Det är därmed svårt att bestämma ett korrekt pris på de besläktade transaktionerna, varför internpriser skall bedömas i enlighet med armlängdsprincipen. För att kunna bevisa att aktuella transaktioner gjorts på armlängds avstånd måste en internationell kon-cern upprätta dokumentation som visar hur priserna bestämts och varför de skall anses vara armlängdsmässiga. Dokumentation är därmed ett försök att bestämma internpriser i överensstämmelse med armlängdsprincipen. Trots att armlängdsprincipen följs av de flesta skattemyndigheter i bedömningen av internpriser, appliceras den på olika sätt. Kravet att möta flertalet olika nationella regelverk skapar ökade kostnader för de internationella företagsgrupperna. De löper dock stor risk att bli utsatta för dubbelbeskattning eller dokumentationsrelaterade sanktioner om de inte uppfyller respektive lands krav. För att underlätta den administrativa bördan samt de kostnader som uppstår har OECD utvecklat rikt-linjer gällande internprissättning, “The OECD Transfer Pricing Guidelines”, där kapitel V reglerar do-kumentation. Riktlinjerna grundar sig på principer om en sund företagsanda (prudent business manage-ment), vilket betyder att skattemyndigheters behov av information skall vägas mot den kostnad och börda det innebär för skattebetalaren att samla in eller upprätta dokumenten. PATA och EU har i respektive handelsområde försökt harmonisera de nationella dokumentationskraven genom att presentera nya internationella föreskrifter inom ramen för OECDs riktlinjer. I en strävan att efterfölja den internationella utvecklingen vad gäller dokumentation av internpriser har Sveriges Regering gett ut en proposition där införande av nationella dokumentationskrav för internprissättning föreslås. Ett grundläggande problem gällande det aktuella området är de olika synsätten på armlängdsprincipens fastställande. Harmonisering av endast dokumentationskrav kan därför inte ensamt lösa problemen med armlängdsmässig internprissättning. Vidare innebär de utvärderade instrumenten en harmonisering på högsta nivå, varför syftet att underlätta skattebetalares börda och kostnader ej heller uppfylls. / In this master thesis a comparative study is made regarding the international guidelines on transfer pricing documentation. International transfer pricing deals with the valuation of intragroup crossborder transactions. As the involved parties share interests to such an extent that the terms and conditions of their transactions could differ to what unrelated parties would agree on, it is complicated to properly price the controlled transactions. The transactions are therefore to be determined in accordance with the arm’s length principle. In order to show the arm’s length nature of controlled cross-border transactions an MNE must provide transfer pricing documentation demonstrating how the prices have been determined and why they are at arm’s length. Documentation is thus an endeavour to determine transfer prices in accordance with the arm’s length principle. Even though the arm’s length principle is used by most tax authorities when regulating transfer prices, the application of the principle differs. This imposes massive compliance costs for MNEs trying to meet the transfer pricing documentation requirements of numerous jurisdictions. However, the MNEs are at great risk of being exposed to double taxation or documentationrelated penalties if they do not meet the above mentioned documentation requirements. In order to ease the burden on MNEs, OECD has developed transfer pricing guidelines wherein Chapter V deals with the problems of transfer pricing documentation. The OECD Transfer Pricing Guidelines on documentation are founded on the principles of prudent business management, which means that the tax authorities´ need for information should be balanced by the cost and burden for the taxpayer of obtaining or creating the documents in question. PATA and the EU have, by presenting new international frameworks, tried to harmonise national documentation requirements for their respective trade areas within the limits of the OECD Transfer Pricing Guidelines. In an attempt to follow the international developments regarding transfer pricing documentation, the Swedish Government has proposed a draft bill for national rules on documentation. A fundamental problem within the area is the different approaches in assessing the arm’s length principle and harmonisation of documentation in itself cannot solve this issue. Moreover, since the evaluated frame-works signify harmonisation on the highest level, the efforts to ease the compliance burden for taxpayers cannot be reached.

Syfte: - Att undersöka om OECD:s riktlinjer är vedertagna hos de granskade koncernerna och beskriva vilka internprissättningsmodeller de använder sig av. - Att beskriva vilka effekter de undersökta koncernerna försöker uppnå med sin internprissättning. - Att undersöka vilken vikt skatteaspekten har för dessa koncerner vid sin internprissättning. - Att undersöka hur dessa koncerner dokumenterar sin interprissättning och vilka påföljder de nya dokumentationskraven kommer att få för dem. / Purpose: - To examine whether OECD:s guidelines are accepted among the reviewed multinational corporations and to describe what Transfer Pricing models they use. - To describe what kind of effects they try to accomplish with their Transfer Pricing. - To examine to what degree the tax issue has on Transfer Pricing. - To examine how these Multinational Corporations document their Transfer Pricing and how the new demands on documentation will affect them

In recent years transfer pricing has become one of the most important issues for tax authorities and companies. As the area has become more complex this has lead to an increase in disputes and a need for dispute resolution procedure. Advanced Pricing Arrangement (APA) is the latest dispute resolution procedure and was introduced in Sweden in 2010. APAs determine a taxpayer’s future taxation of cross-border transaction by a taxpayer. Through co-operation the taxpayer and the tax authorities reach an APA that aims to avoid double taxation. The legislation is based on the guidance from the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and it serves as a framework for many domestic legislations. Other countries with more experience from APAs have implemented additional guidance from the OECD in its legislation but the Swedish legislation has left some options outside. The Swedish APA does not allow for unilateral APAs where an agreement is concluded only with one tax authority in a cross-border transaction. In Sweden, only APAs negotiated with other tax authority are allowed. To increase legal certainty where unilateral APAs are the best or only way Sweden should implement them it its legislation. As the APA process is costly and complex small and medium companies cannot benefit from the advantages. In order for smaller companies to be able to take advantage of the APA program a simplified system should be implemented. In some countries the tax administrations also allows the APA to be applicable retrospective, referred to as roll-back. Through a roll-back taxpayers can avoid potential disputes regarding past transactions as well as the advantages from the APA for future transactions. This can be done while a taxpayer is under audit and is considered a less hostile alternative.

<p>Utgångspunkten för denna magisteruppsats är en komparativ studie av internationella riktlinjer för dokumentation av internprissättning.</p><p>Internprissättning reglerar hur närståendetransaktioner inom internationella koncerner skall värderas. Då de inblandade parterna står i intressegemenskap med varandra kan villkoren bakom transaktionerna skilja sig från vad oberoende parter skulle kommit överens om. Det är därmed svårt att bestämma ett korrekt pris på de besläktade transaktionerna, varför internpriser skall bedömas i enlighet med armlängdsprincipen.</p><p>För att kunna bevisa att aktuella transaktioner gjorts på armlängds avstånd måste en internationell kon-cern upprätta dokumentation som visar hur priserna bestämts och varför de skall anses vara armlängdsmässiga. Dokumentation är därmed ett försök att bestämma internpriser i överensstämmelse med armlängdsprincipen.</p><p>Trots att armlängdsprincipen följs av de flesta skattemyndigheter i bedömningen av internpriser, appliceras den på olika sätt. Kravet att möta flertalet olika nationella regelverk skapar ökade kostnader för de internationella företagsgrupperna. De löper dock stor risk att bli utsatta för dubbelbeskattning eller dokumentationsrelaterade sanktioner om de inte uppfyller respektive lands krav.</p><p>För att underlätta den administrativa bördan samt de kostnader som uppstår har OECD utvecklat rikt-linjer gällande internprissättning, “The OECD Transfer Pricing Guidelines”, där kapitel V reglerar do-kumentation. Riktlinjerna grundar sig på principer om en sund företagsanda (prudent business manage-ment), vilket betyder att skattemyndigheters behov av information skall vägas mot den kostnad och börda det innebär för skattebetalaren att samla in eller upprätta dokumenten.</p><p>PATA och EU har i respektive handelsområde försökt harmonisera de nationella dokumentationskraven genom att presentera nya internationella föreskrifter inom ramen för OECDs riktlinjer. I en strävan att efterfölja den internationella utvecklingen vad gäller dokumentation av internpriser har Sveriges Regering gett ut en proposition där införande av nationella dokumentationskrav för internprissättning föreslås.</p><p>Ett grundläggande problem gällande det aktuella området är de olika synsätten på armlängdsprincipens fastställande. Harmonisering av endast dokumentationskrav kan därför inte ensamt lösa problemen med armlängdsmässig internprissättning. Vidare innebär de utvärderade instrumenten en harmonisering på högsta nivå, varför syftet att underlätta skattebetalares börda och kostnader ej heller uppfylls.</p> / <p>In this master thesis a comparative study is made regarding the international guidelines on transfer pricing documentation.</p><p>International transfer pricing deals with the valuation of intragroup crossborder transactions. As the involved parties share interests to such an extent that the terms and conditions of their transactions could differ to what unrelated parties would agree on, it is complicated to properly price the controlled transactions. The transactions are therefore to be determined in accordance with the arm’s length principle.</p><p>In order to show the arm’s length nature of controlled cross-border transactions an MNE must provide transfer pricing documentation demonstrating how the prices have been determined and why they are at arm’s length. Documentation is thus an endeavour to determine transfer prices in accordance with the arm’s length principle.</p><p>Even though the arm’s length principle is used by most tax authorities when regulating transfer prices, the application of the principle differs. This imposes massive compliance costs for MNEs trying to meet the transfer pricing documentation requirements of numerous jurisdictions. However, the MNEs are at great risk of being exposed to double taxation or documentationrelated penalties if they do not meet the above mentioned documentation requirements.</p><p>In order to ease the burden on MNEs, OECD has developed transfer pricing guidelines wherein Chapter V deals with the problems of transfer pricing documentation. The OECD Transfer Pricing Guidelines on documentation are founded on the principles of prudent business management, which means that the tax authorities´ need for information should be balanced by the cost and burden for the taxpayer of obtaining or creating the documents in question.</p><p>PATA and the EU have, by presenting new international frameworks, tried to harmonise national documentation requirements for their respective trade areas within the limits of the OECD Transfer Pricing Guidelines. In an attempt to follow the international developments regarding transfer pricing documentation, the Swedish Government has proposed a draft bill for national rules on documentation.</p><p>A fundamental problem within the area is the different approaches in assessing the arm’s length principle and harmonisation of documentation in itself cannot solve this issue. Moreover, since the evaluated frame-works signify harmonisation on the highest level, the efforts to ease the compliance burden for taxpayers cannot be reached.</p>

published_or_final_version / Law / Master / Doctor of Legal Studies

Titel: Internprissättning – skattekonsekvenser av internprissättning i multinationella koncerner Problem: Beskattningsåret 2007 infördes en regel med krav på att företag i intressegemenskap måste dokumentera grunden för sin internprissättning. Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Develoment har givit ut en samling rekommendationer kring detta. Denna samling behandlar dels förkommande dokumentationskrav men även modeller för hur internprissättning skall upprättas. Ovanstående har utmynnat i följande frågor. Vilka regler och lagar styr över den internationella internprissättningen för bolag i intressegemenskap? Samt hur har Svenska domstolar dömt i fall rörande internprissättning? Syfte: Syftet med denna uppsats är att ur ett skatteperspektiv med Sverige som utgångspunkt beskriva vilka lagar och regler som styr den gränsöverskridande internprissättningen, samt att analysera huruvida och i var mån svenska domstolar har tillämpat sig av OECDs riktlinjer för internprissättning i sin bedömning. Metod: En kvalitativ undersökning av litteratur, doktrin samt rättsfall inom intresseområdet Resultat: Slutsatsen som går att dra av de undersöka rättsfallen är att svenska domstolar har använt sig av OECD:s riktlinjer i sin bedömning. / Title: Transfer pricing, pricing between multinational corporations within an arm lengths distance relationship Problem: 2007 the Swedish tax agency introduced a new requirement for companies within an arm lengths distance relationship to document their transfer pricing models. Before 2007, the companies within such relationships were only required to show their documentation if the tax agency conducted an audit. When looking at this new rule two questions emerge; Which are the rules and laws that controls the transfer pricing between companies within an arms length relationship? How has the Swedish court system ruled in the cases that concerned this kind of transfer pricing? Purpose: The aim of the thesis is to investigate, from a taxation perspective, the laws and regulations that control the transfer pricing between multinational corporations in an arms length relationship. The thesis also aims to see if and how the Swedish court system uses the OECD guidelines in their ruling. Method: The investigation consists of studies of literature, laws and court cases and other related information. Result: The analysis has shown proof that the Swedish court system uses the OECD transfer pricing guidelines in their judgement.

This thesis is based on the regulations found in the OECD model and the OECD TP guidelines concerning the arm’s length principle. The core of the arm’s length principle is that transactions between associated enterprises should be treated the same as transactions between independent enterprises. This principle can be found in Article 9 of the OECD model. One transaction that may fall within the scope of Article 9 of the OECD model is business restructuring. Business restructuring was previously an unregulated TP area but with the new OECD TP guidelines, from 2010, regulations have been formulated. The aim with thesis is therefore to examine how the arm’s length principle should be applied to the new guidelines for business restructurings of intangibles with an uncertain value at the time of the restructuring. In order to answer the question set out in this thesis some of the factors that affect the application of the arm’s length principle have been examined separately. Firstly the arm’s length principle that is the generally accepted TP method used by both taxpayers and tax administrations in order to find a fair price for transactions between associated enterprises. The principle seeks to identify the controlled transaction and thereafter find a comparable uncontrolled transaction that is similar to the transaction performed between the associated enterprises. The second part examined the meaning of the term business restructuring according to the new guidelines since there is no other legal or general definition. Business restructurings are defined as cross-border redeployments of functions assets and risks, performed by MNEs. As long as a transaction falls within this definition it will be subjected to the arm’s length principle for tax purposes. The third part examined intangibles since that also lack a general definition. The identification and valuation of intangibles is a complex and uncertain thing to do for both taxpayers and tax administrations. When applying the arm’s length principle it is however found that the issue of identification of what constitutes and intangible may be unnecessary. The aspect that should be considered is instead the value of the intangible or more precise, the value that independent enterprises would have agreed upon in a similar situation. The applicability of the arm’s length principle to business restructurings of intangibles with an uncertain value at the time of the restructuring should be found by performing a comparability analysis. In order to perform a comparability analysis, the controlled transaction firstly has to be identified. Thereafter, a comparable uncontrolled transaction needs to be found. An equivalent uncontrolled transaction may not be found in all cases and it should in those cases be examined what independent enterprises would have done if they had been in a comparable situation. The arm’s length principle should be applied to business restructurings of intangibles with an uncertain value in the same manner as for any other uncontrolled transaction. The issues for this type of a transaction become the identification of what constitutes a business restructuring and also how to determine a fair value for the intangibles. The OECD TP guidelines lack some guidance as to the issues that can occur when a comparable uncontrolled transaction cannot be found. This creates an unsatisfactory guesswork for both taxpayers and tax administrations when trying to determine what independent enterprises would have done if they had been in a similar situation. This creates an unnecessary uncertainty when trying to apply the arm’s length principle.