As doenças tropicais negligenciadas, que atingem as populações mais carentes do mundo, representam em termos humanitários e socioeconômicos uma grande preocupação global. As tripanossomíases estão entre as doenças parasitárias mais importantes, e, particularmente, a tripanossomíase africana, ou doença do sono, destaca-se como uma grave condição de saúde, causada pelo parasita unicelular Trypanosoma brucei. Dentre os principais alvos metabólicos considerados para o desenvolvimento de novos fármacos para o tratamento das tripanossomíases, a glicólise recebe especial atenção em função de seu papel vital no processo de produção de ATP para o parasita que vive na corrente sanguínea. Esta tese de doutorado tem como objetivo identificar novos candidatos a inibidores da enzima aldolase (EC 4.1.2.13) da via glicolítica de T. brucei. Considerando-se que o alvo macromolecular em questão é validado para o planejamento de fármacos, inibidores desta enzima são candidatos a novos agentes quimioterápicos. Este trabalho explora a integração de métodos experimentais e computacionais através de estratégias de planejamento de fármacos baseado na estrutura do receptor (SBDD, na sigla inglesa para structure-based drug design) e na estrutura do ligante (LBDD, na sigla inglesa para ligand-based drug design) para a identificação de inibidores da enzima alvo. Foram produzidos resultados significativos, tais como a identificação através de triagens virtuais em larga escala de novas moléculas capazes de inibir a atividade da aldolase. Adicionalmente, destaca-se a obtenção de protocolos de expressão, purificação e cristalização para a enzima alvo. Como parte da estratégia de identificação de novos inibidores da aldolase, foram desenvolvidos modelos de QSAR 2D e 3D e estudos de dinâmica molecular. / Neglected tropical diseases, which affect the poorest populations across the developing world, are a major global concern. The trypanosomiases are amongst the most serious neglected tropical diseases, and particularly, African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), caused by the unicellular parasite Trypanosoma brucei, appears as a fatal condition. The glycolytic pathway emerges as a promising target among the metabolic pathways for the development of new drugs, due to its essential role in the ATP generating process in the bloodstream form of the parasite. The goal of this work is to identify new inhibitors for the glycolytic enzyme aldolase (EC 4.1.2.13) from Trypanosoma brucei. Inhibitors of this enzyme are drug candidates with high potential for clinical development, as the respective target enzyme was validated as a molecular target for the therapy of trypanosomiasis. The strategy employed in this study includes the integration of SBDD (structure-based drug design) and LBDD, (ligand-based drug design) for the identification of inhibitors of the target enzyme, through the combination of computational and experimental methodologies. Significant results were obtained, such as the identification of new small molecule inhibitors of the aldolase enzyme through high-throughput virtual screening. Additionally, it is highlighted the standardization of expression, purification and crystallization protocols for the target enzyme. As a component of the strategy for the identification of novel aldolase inhibitors, 2D and 3D QSAR models were developed, as well as molecular dynamics studies.

Submitted by Fabio Sobreira Campos da Costa (fabio.sobreira@ufpe.br) on 2016-08-12T13:39:46Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) tese amaranta.pdf: 1596892 bytes, checksum: 5d4ba09b331b3e559fa3f104e519a054 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-12T13:39:46Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) tese amaranta.pdf: 1596892 bytes, checksum: 5d4ba09b331b3e559fa3f104e519a054 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-03-09 / CNPq / A iniciação da tradução é a etapa mais complexa de um processo crítico para a sobrevivência dos seres vivos, onde se destaca a atuação do complexo eIF4F, formado pelas subunidades eIF4E, eIF4A, e eIF4G. Seis homólogos de eIF4E (EIF4E1 a 6) e cinco de eIF4G (EIF4G1 a 5) foram identificados no protozoário Trypanosoma brucei. Este trabalho buscou contribuir no estudo de complexos do tipo eIF4F neste patógeno, inicialmente analisando a expressão de subunidades de complexos já definidos, formado pelos EIF4E4/EIF4G3 e EIF4E3/EIF4G4. Observou-se que, à exceção do EIF4G3, essas subunidades são representadas por isoformas originárias de eventos de fosforilação. No caso do EIF4E4, esses eventos estão associados às fases de crescimento do microorganismo e as fosforilações dos EIF4E3 e EIF4E4 são direcionadas às suas extremidades N-terminais. A etapa seguinte compreendeu o estudo de duas proteínas hipotéticas, encontradas com novos complexos baseados nos EIF4E5/EIF4G1 e EIF4E6/EIF4G5 (Tb117.5 e TbG5-IP). Essas são homólogas de enzimas associadas a formação da extremidade 5’ dos mRNAs, porém apresentaram localização citoplasmática. Sua associação aos referidos complexos foi investigada e enquanto a Tb117.5 se associa com uma subpopulação do complexo EIF4E5/EIF4G1, a TbG5-IP se mostrou parte integrante do complexo EIF4E6/EIF5G5. A depleção por RNA interferência dessas proteínas não alterou a viabilidade celular apesar do insucesso na obtenção de deleção dupla dos seus genes. Os dados obtidos sugerem uma divergência funcional nesses complexos ainda não encontrada em outros eucariotos. / The initiation of translation is the most complex stage of a critical process required for the survival of all living beings and which requires the activity of the eIF4F complex, formed by the eIF4E, eIF4A, and eIF4G subunits. Six homologues of eIF4E (EIF4E1 to 6) and five of eIF4G (EIF4G1 to 5) were identified in the protozoan Trypanosoma brucei. This study aimed to contribute to the study of eIF4F-like complexes within this pathogen, initially analyzing the expression of subunits found in already defined complexes, formed by EIF4E4/EIF4G3 and EIF4E3/EIF4G4. Except for EIF4G3, all these subunits are represented by multiple isoforms originating from phosphorylation events. For EIF4E4, these events are associated with the microorganism’s growth phase and the phosphorylations of both EIF4E3 and EIF4E4 are directed to their N- terminal ends. The next step included the study of two hypothetical proteins found within new complexes based on EIF4E5/EIF4G1 and EIF4E6/EIF4G5 (Tb117.5 and TbG5-IP). These are homologous to enzymes associated with the formation of the mRNAs’ 5’ end but showed cytoplasmic localization. Their association with the new complexes was investigated and while Tb117.5 is associated with a subset of the EIF4E5/EIF4G1 complex, TbG5-IP proved to be an integral part of the EIF4E6/EIF5G5 complex. The depletion by RNA interference of these proteins did not affect cell viability despite the failure to achieve a double deletion of their genes. The data suggest a functional divergence in these complexes that is not found in other eukaryotes.

Submitted by Fabio Sobreira Campos da Costa (fabio.sobreira@ufpe.br) on 2016-08-12T13:48:49Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) tese amaranta.pdf: 1596892 bytes, checksum: 5d4ba09b331b3e559fa3f104e519a054 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-12T13:48:49Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) tese amaranta.pdf: 1596892 bytes, checksum: 5d4ba09b331b3e559fa3f104e519a054 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-03-09 / CNPq / A iniciação da tradução é a etapa mais complexa de um processo crítico para a sobrevivência dos seres vivos, onde se destaca a atuação do complexo eIF4F, formado pelas subunidades eIF4E, eIF4A, e eIF4G. Seis homólogos de eIF4E (EIF4E1 a 6) e cinco de eIF4G (EIF4G1 a 5) foram identificados no protozoário Trypanosoma brucei. Este trabalho buscou contribuir no estudo de complexos do tipo eIF4F neste patógeno, inicialmente analisando a expressão de subunidades de complexos já definidos, formado pelos EIF4E4/EIF4G3 e EIF4E3/EIF4G4. Observou-se que, à exceção do EIF4G3, essas subunidades são representadas por isoformas originárias de eventos de fosforilação. No caso do EIF4E4, esses eventos estão associados às fases de crescimento do microorganismo e as fosforilações dos EIF4E3 e EIF4E4 são direcionadas às suas extremidades N-terminais. A etapa seguinte compreendeu o estudo de duas proteínas hipotéticas, encontradas com novos complexos baseados nos EIF4E5/EIF4G1 e EIF4E6/EIF4G5 (Tb117.5 e TbG5-IP). Essas são homólogas de enzimas associadas a formação da extremidade 5’ dos mRNAs, porém apresentaram localização citoplasmática. Sua associação aos referidos complexos foi investigada e enquanto a Tb117.5 se associa com uma subpopulação do complexo EIF4E5/EIF4G1, a TbG5-IP se mostrou parte integrante do complexo EIF4E6/EIF5G5. A depleção por RNA interferência dessas proteínas não alterou a viabilidade celular apesar do insucesso na obtenção de deleção dupla dos seus genes. Os dados obtidos sugerem uma divergência funcional nesses complexos ainda não encontrada em outros eucariotos. / The initiation of translation is the most complex stage of a critical process required for the survival of all living beings and which requires the activity of the eIF4F complex, formed by the eIF4E, eIF4A, and eIF4G subunits. Six homologues of eIF4E (EIF4E1 to 6) and five of eIF4G (EIF4G1 to 5) were identified in the protozoan Trypanosoma brucei. This study aimed to contribute to the study of eIF4F-like complexes within this pathogen, initially analyzing the expression of subunits found in already defined complexes, formed by EIF4E4/EIF4G3 and EIF4E3/EIF4G4. Except for EIF4G3, all these subunits are represented by multiple isoforms originating from phosphorylation events. For EIF4E4, these events are associated with the microorganism’s growth phase and the phosphorylations of both EIF4E3 and EIF4E4 are directed to their N- terminal ends. The next step included the study of two hypothetical proteins found within new complexes based on EIF4E5/EIF4G1 and EIF4E6/EIF4G5 (Tb117.5 and TbG5-IP). These are homologous to enzymes associated with the formation of the mRNAs’ 5’ end but showed cytoplasmic localization. Their association with the new complexes was investigated and while Tb117.5 is associated with a subset of the EIF4E5/EIF4G1 complex, TbG5-IP proved to be an integral part of the EIF4E6/EIF5G5 complex. The depletion by RNA interference of these proteins did not affect cell viability despite the failure to achieve a double deletion of their genes. The data suggest a functional divergence in these complexes that is not found in other eukaryotes.

Trypanosoma brucei est un parasite africain unicellulaire, responsable chez l’homme de la maladie du sommeil et chez les bovins de la Nagana. Il passe par différents stades lors de son cycle de vie, les deux principaux étant la forme sanguicole qui prolifère dans le sang des mammifères infectés, et la forme procyclique qui colonise le tube digestif du vecteur, la mouche glossine. <p>Les trypanosomes sont extracellulaires, ils possèdent un flagelle qui leur permet de se mouvoir dans les différents milieux qu’ils infestent. La structure de celui-ci contient des éléments conservés au cours de l’évolution. Il constitue donc un excellent modèle de base pour en étudier l’architecture. D’autre part, le flagelle du parasite contient des structures propres à certains kinétoplastides, offrant ainsi une cible thérapeutique aux traitements anti-trypanosomiaux.<p>Le flagelle est véritablement un organite plurifonctionnel nécessaire à la survie du parasite au sein des divers environnements qu’il rencontre lors de son cycle de développement. Outre son rôle moteur, il permet à la cellule d’échapper au système immunitaire de son hôte mammifère et de s’attacher à l’épithélium des glandes salivaires de l’insecte. Il est également requis pour le bon positionnement des organites, la morphogenèse et la division cellulaire. Enfin, il serait impliqué dans l’activité sensorielle du trypanosome. A ce jour, on ne connait quasiment rien des potentielles voies de « sensing ». Elles doivent pourtant exister, permettant l’appréhension de l’environnement, l’interaction avec les hôtes et la réception de signaux induisant la différenciation.<p><p>Cet intérêt pour les voies de signalisation du parasite a abouti à l’étude des composantes de la voie TOR. TOR-Target of Rapamycin est un contrôleur central de la croissance cellulaire qu’il régule en fonction de différents stimuli externes. Il a été démontré depuis que chez T.brucei aussi, TOR régulerait la croissance temporelle et spatiale de la cellule.<p>La kinase TOR est inhibée par sa liaison avec le complexe rapamycine-FKBP12. Nous avons identifié cette peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomérase chez le parasite :TbFKBP12. Elle y serait localisée au niveau du cytosquelette/flagelle. Contrairement à ce qui est observé chez la levure S.cerevisiae, l’isomérase est essentielle chez le trypanosome. Son invalidation par RNAi bloque la cytocinèse des parasites sanguicoles et provoque l’apparition d’axes de clivage internes à la cellule. Chez les formes procycliques par contre, la disparition de la protéine entraîne un défaut sévère de motilité du flagelle qui se traduit par une immobilisation partielle du parasite. <p>TbFKBP12 est donc impliquée dans l’homéostasie du flagelle chez le trypanosome africain, organite nécessaire à la motilité et à la division cellulaire. <p> / Doctorat en sciences, Spécialisation biologie moléculaire / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Doctorat en Sciences / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Trypanosoma brucei est un parasite protozoaire responsable de la trypanosomiase humaine africaine. Il présente un cycle de vie complexe alternant entre des hôtes mammifères et un vecteur insecte, la mouche tsé-tsé. Au cours de ce cycle, il rencontre des environnements radicalement distincts auxquels il s’adapte en régulant son métabolisme. Nous avons étudié le métabolisme intermédiaire et énergétique de la forme procyclique évoluant dans le tractus digestif de l’insecte vecteur. Dans cet environnement dépourvu de glucose, la néoglucogenèse est cruciale pour la croissance et la survie des parasites car elle permet la synthèse d’hexoses phosphates et en particulier du glucose 6-phosphate qui alimente plusieurs voies de biosynthèse essentielles. Nos travaux confirment ce flux néoglucogénique alimenté par la proline mais aussi par le glycérol. Nous montrons que le glycérol est une source de carbone efficacement métabolisée et préférentiellement utilisée par la forme procyclique à défaut de la proline et même du glucose pour alimenter son métabolisme intermédiaire. Cette situation qu in’a jamais été décrite auparavant met en évidence la répression du glycérol sur le métabolisme du glucose. Nous montrons également que l’enzyme fructose 1,6-biphosphatase(FBPase), spécifique de la néoglucogenèse, n’est pas essentielle à la survie du parasite en conditions dépourvues de glucose indiquant qu’il existe une alternative à cette enzyme.Toutefois, FBPase joue un rôle important dans la virulence de T. brucei dans l’insecte.De plus, nous avons mis en évidence une autre stratégie d’adaptation de T. brucei basée sur des réarrangements génomiques qui peuvent mener à la synthèse de gènes chimères. / Trypanosoma brucei is a protozoan parasite responsible for human African trypanosomiasis. His complex life cycle alternates between mammalian hosts and the insect vector, the tsetsefly. During this cycle, the parasite encounters dissimilar environments and adapts to the sechanging conditions by regulating his metabolism. We have studied intermediate and energetic metabolism of the procyclic form living in the midgut of the insect vector. In this glucose-depleted environment, gluconeogenesis is crucial for growth and viability of the parasites. Indeed, it allows the synthesis of hexoses phosphates and in particular glucose 6-phosphate which feeds several essential biosynthetic pathways. Our work has confirmed the existence of a gluconeogenic flux fed by proline and glycerol. We have shown that glycerol is an efficiently metabolized carbon source and is preferentially used by the procyclic form rather than proline or even glucose. This situation never described before highlights glycerol repression on glucose metabolism. We have also showed that the enzyme fructose 1,6-biphosphatase (FBPase), specific of the gluconeogenesis, is not essential for the viability ofthe parasite in glucose-depleted conditions, suggesting that there is an alternative to this enzyme. However, FBPase plays an important role for virulence of T. brucei in the insect. Moreover, we have showed another adaptation strategy developed by T. brucei which is basedo n genomic rearrangements leading to the synthesis of chimeric genes.

Le parasite Trypanosoma brucei est retrouvé en Afrique sub-Saharienne et est responsable de la maladie du sommeil chez l’homme et de la Nagana chez les animaux. Il cause de graves problèmes sanitaires et économiques car il affecte le bétail. La vaccination est impossible à cause de la variation antigénique. Les traitements actuels sont difficiles à mettre en place avec des effets secondaires importants. Il est donc urgent de trouver de nouvelles cibles thérapeutiques afin de développer de nouveaux médicaments. T. brucei possède un flagelle unique qui émerge de la cellule par une structure appelée la poche flagellaire (FP). Cette FP est une invagination de la membrane plasmique. Elle est nécessaire à la survie du parasite car c’est le seul site d’endo- et d’exocytose. Au cou de la FP on trouve le collier de la poche flagellaire (FPC) en forme d’anneau. Le FPC est composé de nombreuses protéines dont BILBO1 qui est nécessaire à la biogenèse de la FP et du FPC. De nombreux partenaires de BILBO1 ont été identifiés. Dans cette thèse, je caractérise deux d’entre eux : FPC5, une kinésine putative et FPC9, une synaptotagmine putative. J’ai pu montrer que FPC5 est localisée aux corps basaux mais aussi au FPC. Cette protéine n’est pas essentielle à la survie des parasites bien que des phénotypes de croissance et de ségrégation de la FP apparaissent après induction de l’ARNi. Nous ne sommes pas parvenus à prouver sa fonctionnalité, cependant j’ai pu montrer que son domaine moteur est capable de lier les microtubules. FPC9 est trouvée au niveau de la zone de transition du flagelle. L’ARNi contre cette protéine n’étant pas effectif, nous ne pouvons pas conclure quant à sa fonction dans la cellule. / Trypanosoma brucei is a parasite found in sub-Saharan Africa and is responsible for sleeping sickness in humans and Nagana in animals. It is the source of serious health and economic problems because it kills livestock. Vaccination is not possible because of antigenic variation and current treatments are difficult to implement or have toxic side effects. For these reasons it is urgent to find new therapeutic targets in order to develop effective treatments. T. brucei has a single copy flagellum that emerges from the cytoplasm through a unique structure called the Flagellar Pocket (FP). This pocket is an invagination of the pellicular membrane and because it is the sole site of endo- and exocytosis, it is essential for parasite survival. At the neck of the FP there is a cytoskeletal structure: the Flagellar Pocket Collar (FPC) that forms a “ring” around the flagellum. The FPC consists of numerous proteins, including the first to be identified - BILBO1, which is necessary for FP and FPC biogenesis. A number of potential BILBO1 partners were identified. In this thesis I characterize two of these proteins: FPC5, a putative kinesin and FPC9, a putative synaptotagmin. I show that FPC5 localizes mainly in the basal body area, but also at the FPC. This protein is not essential for parasite survival although reduced FP segregation and growth phenotypes appear after RNAi induction. We are not able to prove its functionality, however I could show its motor domain is able to bind microtubules. FPC9 is found in the transition zone of the flagellum. However RNAi knockdown against this protein was not efficient, so we are currently unable to define a function for this protein.

The flagellum of Trypanosoma brucei contains a family of antigenically related EF-hand calcium-binding proteins which are called the calflagins. Genomic Southern blots indicated that multiple copies of calflagin genes occur in T brucei. All of the copies were contained in a single 23 kb Xhol-Xhol fragment. Genomic fragments of 2.5 and 1.7 kb were cloned that encoded calflagin sequences. Two new members of the calflagin family were found from genomic clone sequences. The deduced amino acid sequences of the genomic clones showed the calflagin genes were arranged tandemly along the genomic fragments and were similar to previously described calflagins. The calflagin genes were related by two unrelated 3' flanking sequences. An open reading frame that was unrelated to any calflagin was found at the 5' end of the 2.5 kb genomic fragment. Each encoded protein (~24,000u) contained three EF-hand calcium-binding motifs and one degenerate EF-hand motif. In general, variability among the T. brucei calflagins is greater than related proteins in T. lewisii and T. cruzi. This variability results from amino acid substitutions at the amino and carboxy termini, and duplication of internal segments.

African trypanosomes are a major plague in sub-Saharan Africa. They cause sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in cattle. These parasites are transmitted between their mammalian hosts by tsetse flies. They are adapting to their different environments through differentiation processes. These processes involve, amongst other things, the expression of different surface coats. These coats are made of procyclin protein at the insect midgut procyclic stage and of variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) at the mammalian bloodstream stage. At a given time, one VSG is expressed from a single VSG gene out of a repertoire of more than 1500 VSG genes present in the trypanosomes genome. The expressed VSG gene is always located at one of fifteen telomeric polycistronic transcription units called expression sites (ES). The VSG coat is changed regularly in a process called antigenic variation allowing trypanosomes to escape the immune response. The exact mechanism controlling the selection of the active ES is not yet known and controversies have been raised concerning the ES transcription control. Although several molecular factors involved in the ES monoallelic-expression have been identified, none of them seems to be a critical regulator.<p><p>Thus during my thesis we decided to explore two aspects of ES expression: (A) deciphering the level at which this expression is controlled and (B) fishing for new protein factors controlling this expression.<p>A) It is not even clear at which level the ES transcription control takes place. In particular, there has been debate on whether it is taking place at the transcription initiation or elongation level. Previous experiments generated contradictory conclusions and gave rise to two different models. The first model suggested that transcription initiation takes place in all ESs simultaneously. The second model suggested that transcription is initiated in only two ESs, one being fully active and a second being pre-active. These two models were equally able to account for the finding of transcripts from different ES within a trypanosome population provided the pre-active ES differs between individual cells. In order to decide if a single or multiple ES promoters can initiate transcription in a given cell, single cell RT-PCR targeting the beginning of the ES was required. Thus single cell RT-PCR was performed and an analysis of the obtained transcripts showed that transcription initiation is taking place on many ES while only one VSG is transcribed. This permitted the unambiguous conclusion that the monoallelic expression of VSG is exerted by controls operating downstream from transcription initiation, suggesting transcription elongation or RNA processing as critical control steps. <p>B) We have characterized a new nuclear protein, Tb alba3, involved in the repression of silent VSGs. Its invalidation lead to chromatin opening in the silent expression sites and to a raise in their expression. As this protein is cytoplasmic and binding procyclin mRNAs at the procyclic stage, it could be a new versatile factor, shuttling between the cytoplasm and the nucleus and involved both in the inverse regulation of major surface antigens at different differentiation stages and the control of antigenic variation.<p><p>These results enhance our understanding of ES transcription control and of ES monoallelic expression. / Doctorat en Sciences / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

The bloodstream form of Trypanosoma brucei differentiates into the stumpy form in the mammalian bloodstream, completing differentiation into the procyclic form on uptake by the tsetse fly. The underlying genetic events occurring during this differentiation process in pleomorphic cell lines were investigated through whole-genome microarray studies of key time points during differentiation from stumpy form cells to the procyclic form found in the insect midgut. The microarray was extensively validated and bioinformatic experiments conducted to detect motifs over represented in stumpy form or slender form cells. A positional-dependent motif was identified that was over represented in stumpy form cells, possibly representing a regulatory domain. The transcripts found to be enriched in stumpy form cells included a chloride channel, although RNAi directed against this gene showed no phenotype, suggesting the protein is redundant, as three other homologous proteins exist in the genome and showed similar mRNA profiles on the microarray. Stumpy form cells are G0 arrested and two proteins implicated in G0/G1 regulation in other organisms, Target of Rapamycin (Tor) and Cdh1, were investigated in T. brucei to determine whether these proteins were involved in differentiation. The result of depletion of either protein was rapid cell death in bloodstream form cells, although treatment with the drug rapamycin did not have any effect on the cells in contrast to other eukaryotes where this drug causes G1 arrest. A method for synchronisation of bloodstream form cells was also designed using a supravital dye and flow cytometry to allow investigation into cell cycle-dependent processes. This method was particularly suitable for harvesting populations enriched in G0/G1 stage cells, however differentiation of the isolated G0/G1 and G2/M populations did not show significantly different differentiation kinetics.