SAMMANFATTNING Cirka 347 miljoner människor lever med diabetes och dödsfallen där sjukdomen är orsaken beräknas öka med mer än 50 procent inom de närmsta tio åren. Typ 2-diabetes är den vanligaste formen av diabetes i världen och omfattar 90 procent av all diabetes. Det är en global ökning av typ 2-diabetes som har ett samband med minskad fysisk aktivitet och ökning av kroppsvikten. Livsstilsförändringar, som omfattar kostomläggning och ökning av den fysiska aktiviteten, har en avgörande roll i behandlingen av typ 2-diabetes och det krävs ett stort eget ansvar av patienten för att minskar risken för att drabbas av allvarliga komplikationer som exempelvis hjärt- och kärlsjukdomar. Trots att livsstilsförändringar är viktiga så är oftast följsamheten låg vilket gör att det är viktigt att belysa vilka faktorer som påverkar följsamheten till livsstilsförändringar. Syftet var att belysa vilka faktorer som påverkar följsamheten till livsstilsförändringar hos personer med typ 2-diabetes En litteraturöversikt gjordes utifrån 15 inkluderade artiklar. Sökningen av artiklarna gjordes i databaserna PubMed och Cinahl. Resultatet presenterades utifrån fyra olika huvudteman: Socialt stöd, kunskap, motivation och livssituation. Vissa teman presenterades med underrubriker. Socialt stöd från familj, vänner och vårdpersonal visade sig vara en väldigt viktig faktor som ökade följsamheten till livsstilsförändringar. Bristande kunskap var ett vanligt hinder, medan tillräcklig kunskap var en underlättande faktor. Motivation lyftes fram som en avgörande faktor som påverkade följsamheten positivt. Patientens livssituation, såsom ekonomi, kultur och tid, var faktorer som hade en inverkan på följsamheten till livsstilsförändringar. Sjuksköterskan har en central roll i diabetesbehandlingen och behöver ge stöd och tillräcklig kunskap, samt utgå ifrån varje individ och utifrån det stötta till livsstilsförändringar. Detta genom att utgå från patientens kunskapsbehov, motivation, kultur och livssituation för att på så sätt öka följsamheten till livsstilsförändringar är avgörande.

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Bakgrund: Människors sätt att leva har under det senaste århundrandet förändrats.Detta har lett till att diabetes typ 2 har ökat runt om i världen. Diabetes typ 2 är enkronisk sjukdom som leder till höga blodsockervärden. Det går att fördröjasjukdomsförloppet och undvika komplikationer om man genomför livsstilsförändringar.Förändringarna kan leda till tankar och känslor hos individerna kring deras situation.Det är viktigt för sjuksköterskor med ökad kunskap om hur personer med diabetes typ 2upplever genomförandet av livsstilsförändringar. Ökad kunskap inom detta område kange personer med diabetes typ 2 förbättrade förutsättningar vid genomförandet avlivsstilsförändringar.Syfte: Syftet med litteraturstudien var att öka kunskapen om hur personer med diabetestyp 2 upplever livsstilsförändringar. Metod: Allmän litteraturstudie baserad på tolv kvalitativa vetenskapliga artiklar. Resultat: I resultatet framkom fem huvudkategorier; upplevda känslor, hinder ochmöjligheter, upplevelse av motivation, betydelse av stöd samt vikten av information. Diskussion: Utifrån resultatet framkom tre centrala fynd som diskuterades; hinder ochmöjligheter, upplevelse av motivation och betydelse av stöd. / Background: The way people live has changed over the last century. This has led to aworldwide increase of type 2 diabetes. Type 2 diabetes is a chronic disease that leads tohigh blood sugar levels. It is possible to delay the disease progression and preventcomplications if lifestyle changes are implemented. These changes can lead to thoughtsand feelings with the individuals regarding their situation. It is important for nurses tohave a better understanding of how people with type 2 diabetes experience theimplementation of lifestyle changes. Increased knowledge in this area can providepeople with type 2 diabetes improved conditions in the implementation of lifestylechanges. Aim: The Aim of the literature review was to increase the knowledge about how peoplewith type 2 diabetes experience lifestyle changes. Method: A general literature review based on twelve qualitative scientific articles. Results: The results revealed five major categories; perceived emotions, obstacles andopportunities, experience of motivation, the importance of support and the importanceof information. Discussion: Based on the results three key findings were revealed and discussed; Obstacles and opportunities, experience of motivation and the importance of support.

Food systems and health systems are interdependent. Historically, however, strategies that focused on the development of these systems evolved in isolation from one another. Non-communicable diseases such as type 2 diabetes have an etiology that is strongly linked to food systems. Type 2 diabetes is taking an ever-increasing toll on health, and health systems, globally, and in Canada. In response, health professional organizations propose an advocacy approach to improve food system characteristics linked to the development of diabetes. Opportunities for, and barriers to, such initiatives have not yet been examined in the health geography literature. The primary objective of this dissertation is to contribute to the development of a framework for action for nutrition educators working in rural areas to use to promote local sustainable food systems. The ultimate objective is to improve the diet, and by extension, the health of those suffering from type 2 diabetes. As part of the research approach, a gendered analysis was employed for the following reasons: First, labour around food production, food procurement and food preparation and health care work is provided predominantly by women. Second, there is a gendered profile of pattern of illness and access to care for people with type 2 diabetes. The research methodology was comprised of a case study and mixed methods approach. Nineteen communities in southwestern Ontario were selected for inclusion in the case study using criteria based on the Rurality Index of Ontario. Data were collected through extensive literature reviews, 34 semi-structured interviews with health professionals, a survey of 24 people afflicted with type 2 diabetes and ‘in situ’ observations. Analysis of the findings using grounded theory techniques, such as iterative coding, revealed barriers to, and opportunities for, supporting local sustainable food systems by area health professionals working at local, regional and national scales. This thesis provides important information about gender roles, community capacity, sense of community, and health professional training that should be considered in the development of policies to promote local sustainable food systems.

Prevention and treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), relies heavily on self-care behaviours such as dietary modification, physical activity, and medication adherence. Ability to perform these self-care behaviours depends, at least in part, on executive function (EF). Recent evidence suggests a correlation between T2DM and impaired cognitive function, including EF. Given the importance of EF for regulation of behaviours, and the importance of self-care in diabetes management, attenuated EF would represent a potential barrier to proper disease management. Thus the objective of Study 1 was to examine the association between T2DM and EF through meta-analytic techniques. Medline, PsychoInfo, and Scopus, as well as article references, were used to identify studies comparing individuals with T2DM to a control population. Effect size was calculated using cohen’s d and random effects modeling, and the potential impact of moderators (age, sex, and T2DM duration) were examined. Review of 60 studies (59 articles), revealed a significant, small-to-moderate effect size (d=-0.249, p<0.001) such that those with T2DM have lower EF. This finding was consistent across all aspects of EF examined (verbal fluency, mental flexibility, inhibition, working memory, and attention), and the association was stronger for those with shorter disease duration. The findings of study 1 illustrate that although individuals with T2DM have a great need for EF, as evidenced by the reliance of self-care behaviours on EF, this population has lower EF upon which to draw to perform these behaviours. Thus, strategies that improve EF, such as aerobic exercise, may be particularly relevant to this population. Acute aerobic exercise has been shown to improve EF in young and older adults; however this effect had not yet been examined in individuals with T2DM. Thus the objective of Study 2 was to examine the effects of acute aerobic exercise on EF in adults with T2DM. A within-subject design was used to compare the change in EF task performance following moderate and minimal intensity aerobic exercise, using Stroop and GNG to measure EF. Analysis revealed a significant effect of moderate exercise in women (but not men) and recently active (but not inactive) individuals, such that moderate exercise mitigated the self-regulatory fatigue effect observed following exercise. This study provides preliminary evidence of a significant beneficial effect of moderate aerobic exercise on EF in female and recently active adults with T2DM.

Thesis (Ph.D. (Dietetics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

Background Due to population growth, aging, urbanisation, increasing prevalence of obesity and physical inactivity, diabetes mellitus (DM) has become one of the most important and prevalent chronic diseases. Glycated haemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) assessment is currently being used all over to monitor glycaemic control as a cornerstone of diabetes care. It might also be a useful screening tool for non–insulin dependent DM, also known as type 2 DM (T2DM). Elevated HbA1c can be linked with long–term risk of cardiovascular complications. Aim The aim of the study was to determine whether HbA1c can be used as reliable screening tool for early detection of T2DM in an African population. Methods This study was a cross–sectional study and was part of the South African, North–West Province (SANWP) leg of the 12–year Prospective Urban and Rural Epidemiological (PURE) study. Baseline data was collected from March to December 2005. A total of 2010 volunteers were recruited from randomly selected households. Data was collected on socio–demographic characteristics, physical activity, dietary intakes, blood pressure and anthropometry. HbA1c, fasting plasma glucose (FPG), liver enzymes and HIV status were determined. Ethical approval for the PURE study was obtained in July 2004. Oral glucose tolerance tests (OGTT) were also done for a sub–group of 465 subjects. The Statistical Consultation Services of the North–West University were consulted to analyse data with SPSS 17.0 and STATISTICA 9.0. Results The HbA1c values within the diabetic FPG groups were 7.46% for men and 8.08% for women. HbA1c values increased significantly progressively from the normal FPG groups to the groups with impaired FPG and the diabetic FPG groups for both men and women. No significant increases were found in HbA1c between the OGTT groups (normal 2 hour plasma glucose (PG), impaired 2–hour PG and diabetic 2–hour PG). Total cholesterol, triglycerides, body mass index and FPG increased significantly and high–density lipoprotein cholesterol decreased significantly with an increase in HbA1c values in men and women. In addition, systolic blood pressure increased significantly in women with increased HbA1c. Thus, with an increase in HbA1c, an increase in the number of risk factors was observed. When using HbA1c and FPG in combination, 43 subjects of the whole population were detected with having a risk of developing T2DM. However, when considering the commonality of subjects identified to be diabetic or at risk by the OGTT, FPG and HbA1c individually, only one subject was identified by all the methods as having diabetes or being at risk to develop diabetes. Discussion and conclusions An increase in HbA1c and FPG was associated with an increase in risk factors and therefore with metabolic syndrome (MS). MS is associated with an increased risk of developing T2DM and therefore it can be concluded that HbA1c was useful for detecting in this population individuals at increased risk of developing T2DM. The use of FPG and HbA1c in combination was considered a better screening tool when compared to HbA1c alone. Factors other than what were measured in this study might be the cause of the unexpected results obtained in the participants with impaired OGTT. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Nutrition))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

Background: Physical activity (PA) is an important component of type 2 diabetes management, yet the amount and type of PA support provided by different types of health care providers (HCPs) is largely unknown. Purpose: This study identified differences in the amount and type of PA supports provided by HCPs, and determined whether HCPs use the Canadian Diabetes Association (CDA) PA guidelines or Canada’s Physical Activity Guide (CPAG) in practice. Methods: Eight of 14 Winnipeg Regional Health Authority primary care clinics specializing in diabetes education agreed to participate in the study. In-person interviews were conducted with health care providers (n=48) and patients with type 2 diabetes (n=26). HCPs were given a total PA support score based on scores in three subcategories behaviour change support (BC), assessment/prescription support (AP) and information/referral/community resources support (IRCR), as reported by HCPs themselves and patients. Results: There was no difference in PA support between the 3 HCP types, but there was a significant difference between HCP report and patient report of PA support. Just over one half of HCPs report using the CDA guidelines unprompted or prompted. Conclusions: HCPs recognize the importance of PA in type 2 diabetes management, but implementing strategies to increase certain types of PA support and facilitate understanding between HCPs and patients would allow for optimal PA counseling in primary care.

Objectives: The incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM2) is on the rise worldwide. The primary objective was to determine the prevalence of nutrient inadequacy and excessiveness in persons with DM2 with and without diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN). Study Design: A validated semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire was used to determine the prevalence of inadequacy of nutrients with an estimated average requirement; the mean intake of nutrients with an adequate intake; and the proportion of persons not meeting the recommendations for the acceptable macronutrient distribution range (AMDR). Results: Differences were observed in the prevalence of inadequacy of vitamin A and the proportion of persons not meeting the AMDR for total fat, linoleic acid and carbohydrate. Conclusion: The aforementioned nutrients may have a significant role in the progression/development of DPN and should be studied in further detail. We recommend a balanced diet and use of a multi-vitamin for persons with DM2.

Thesis (Ph.D. (Dietetics))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.