Este trabalho apresenta o estudo da usinabilidade do carbeto de tungstênio utilizando ferramenta de ponta única de diamante em máquina-ferramenta de ultraprecisão, em função de suas características de dureza e potencial uso para a fabricação de micromoldes. O carbeto de tungstênio foi submetido a testes de usinagem para a determinação dos parâmetros e condições de corte para a obtenção do regime dúctil. Com base nos resultados experimentais, concluiu-se que, para os avanços da ordem de 1 micrômetro/revolução, a profundidade de corte (AP) não influencia significativamente no resultado de rugosidade, e para avanços da ordem de 3 micrômetros, observou-se a formação de trincas na superfície usinada. Além disso, para profundidades de corte maiores que 2 micrômetros as ferramentas começaram a apresentar lascamento. Para avanços da ordem de 3 micrômetro/revolução a profundidade de corte influencia com grande significância no resultado de rugosidade. O torneamento do carbeto de tungstênio usando ferramenta de diamante mostrou-se uma opção viável à produção de superfícies em termos de qualidade óptica, porém, devido à alta dureza deste material (aproximadamente 4000HV) o torneamento mostrou ser um processo com condições limitadas para a produção em série de componentes em função da baixa taxa de remoção de material permitida. É possível que a retificação possa apresentar taxas de remoção maiores, mesmo assim garantindo a qualidade superficial atingida pelo torneamento, ou ainda, a retificação possa ser usada como um processo no desbaste do carbeto de tungstênio seguido do torneamento de ultraprecisão como a opção viável a produção em série de peças. Portanto, para obtenção de uma superfície de carbeto de tungstênio sem danos e com acabamentos da ordem de 10 nm, a profundidade e avanço não devem ser superiores a 2,00 \'mü\'micrômetros e 1,00 \'mü\'micrômetro/revolução, respectivamente, usando uma ferramenta de diamante nova com ângulo de saída 0 ou - 25 graus e uma máquina-ferramenta de alta precisão. / The single point diamond turning of the Tungsten Carbide is presented. The motivation for this study is the material´s high hardness and potential application for micromolds. A Tungsten Carbide sample was subjected to tests for determination of cutting parameters to achieve the ductile regime of material removal. Based on experimental results it was concluded that for the feedrate of the order of 1 \'mü\'m/revolution, the depth of cut did not affect significantly the surface roughness and for federates of the order of 3 \'mü\'m/revolution, the dept of cut influenced results of roughness greatly. Moreover chipping of the cutting edge occurs for depths of cut of 2 \'mü\'m. The diamond machining of tungsten carbide tool using diamond proved to be a viable option for the production of surfaces in terms of optical quality, but due to the high hardness of this material (approximately 4000HV) showed to be limited for the production of components due to the low material removal rate. It is possible that the precision griding may provide higher material removal rates along with the acceptable surface quality. Therefore, to obtain a damage free surface in tungsten carbide with surface finishe in the order of 10 nm, cutting depth and feedrate should be smaller than 2,00 \'mü\'m and 1,00 \'mü\'m/revolution, respectively, using a new diamond tool with rake angle of 0 or - 25 degrees and precision high stiffness machine tool.

Large area flat displays are nowadays considered being a commodity. After the era of bulky CRT TV technology, LCD and OLED have taken over as the most prevalent technologies for high quality image display devices. An important factor underlying the success of these technologies has been the development of high performance photomask writers in combination with a precise photomask process. Photomask manufacturing can be regarded as an art, highly dependent on qualified and skilled workers in a few companies located in Asia. The manufacturing yield in the photomask process depends to a great extent on several steps of measurements and inspections. Metrology, which is the focus of this thesis, is the science of measurement and is a prerequisite for maintaining high quality in all manufacturing processes. The details and challenges of performing critical measurements over large area photomasks of square meter sizes will be discussed. In particular the development of methods and algorithms related to the metrology system MMS15000, the world standard for large area photomask metrology today, will be presented. The most important quality of a metrology system is repeatability. Achieving good repeatability requires a stable environment, carefully selected materials, sophisticated mechanical solutions, precise optics and capable software. Attributes of the air including humidity, CO2 level, pressure and turbulence are other factors that can impact repeatability and accuracy if not handled properly. Besides the former qualities, there is also the behavior of the photomask itself that needs to be carefully handled in order to achieve a good correspondence to the Cartesian coordinate system. An uncertainty specification below 100 nm (3σ) over an area measured in square meters cannot be fulfilled unless special care is taken to compensate for gravity-induced errors from the photomask itself when it is resting on the metrology tool stage. Calibration is therefore a considerable challenge over these large areas. A novel method for self-calibration will be presented and discussed in the thesis. This is a general method that has proven to be highly robust even in cases when the self-calibration problem is close to being underdetermined. A random sampling method based on massive averaging in the time domain will be presented as the solution for achieving precise spatial measurements of the photomask patterns. This method has been used for detection of the position of chrome or glass edges on the photomask with a repeatability of 1.5 nm (3σ), using a measurement time of 250 ms. The method has also been used for verification of large area measurement repeatability of approximately 10 nm (3σ) when measuring several hundred measurement marks covering an area of 0.8 x 0.8 m2. The measurement of linewidths, referred to in the photomask industry as critical dimension (CD) measurements, is another important task for the MMS15000 system. A threshold-based inverse convolution method will be presented that enhances resolution down to 0.5 µm without requiring a change to the numerical aperture of the system. As already mentioned, metrology is very important for maintaining high quality in a manufacturing environment. In the mask manufacturing industry in particular, the cost of poor quality (CoPQ) is extremely high. Besides the high materials cost, there are also the stringent requirements placed on CD and mask overlay, along with the need for zero defects that make the photomask industry unique. This topic is discussed further, and is shown to be a strong motivation for the development of the ultra-precision metrology built into the MMS15000 system. / <p>QC 20130515</p>

Neste trabalho, diferentes tipos de microestruturas foram geradas por torneamento com ferramenta de diamante de ponta única e microendentação para serem replicadas através da prensagem a quente. Testes foram realizados para ser avaliada a geração destas microestruturas por dois métodos distintos: microdeformação e microusinagem, planejados para observar a replicação gerada por marca de endentação Vickers (piramidal) e, remoção de material (torneamento com ferramenta de diamante de ponta única). Uma revisão no processo de manufatura aplicada para a replicação de microestruturas é apresentada. Os materiais usados como molde e réplica foram o cobre eletrolítico e o polimetilmetacrilato (PMMA), respectivamente. Inicialmente, a usinabilidade do cobre eletrolítico foi avaliada sob diferentes condições de corte, a fim de determinar parâmetros apropriados de torneamento para obter um fino revestimento de superfície final (rugosidade). Observou-se que para avanços (f) de 10 mícrons por revolução e profundidade de corte (ap) de 5 mícrons, a superfície apresentou um baixo valor de rugosidade, isto é, 2,81 nm para rugosidade média (Ra) e 13,4 nm para rugosidade teórica (Rt). Além disso, observou-se que a microestrutura do material mostrou-se de fundamental papel na rugosidade, por conta da recuperação elástica dos grãos devido a anisotropia da estrutura policristalina do cobre. As microestruturas geradas para a replicagem foram: a) lente esférica, b) perfil senoidal e sulcos concêntricos. Os resultados mostraram que é viável a reprodução, com boa conformidade das microestruturas, por meio de prensagem a quente. Observou-se que as bordas e as superfícies finas com rugosidade em torno de 10 nm rms foram bem replicadas. / In this work, different types of microstructures were generated by single point diamond turning and microindentation for will replicated through the hot embossing. Tests were carried to evaluate the generation these microstructures by two distinct methods: micro-deformation and micro-machining, planned to observe the replication of the mark generated by the Vickers indenter (Pyramidal) and the latter by material removal (single point diamond turning). A review on several manufacturing processes applied to replication of microfeatures, is presented. The materials used as mould and replication workpiece were electroless copper and polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), respectively. Initially, the machinability of electroless copper was evaluated under different cutting conditions to determinate appropriate turning parameters to obtain very fine surface finish (roughness). It was observed that for f = 10 microns of revolution (feed rate) and ap = 5 microns (depth of cut), the surface presented the roughness’ lowest value, i.e., 2,81 nm to medium roughness (Ra) and 13,4 nm to theoretical roughness (Rt). Moreover, it was observed that the microstructure of the material plays a fundamental role on roughness, because of the elastic recovery of grains due to the anisotropy of the polycrystalline structure of copper. The microfeatures generated were the following: a) spherical lens, b) sinusoidal profile and concentrical grooves. The results showed that it is feasible to reproduce, with good agreement, the microfeatures by means of hot embossing. It was observed that thin edges and fine surfaces with roughness around 10 nm rms were well replicated.

This thesis is titled "A Framework for Enhancing the Accuracy of Ultra Precision Machining." In this thesis unwanted relative tool / workpiece vibration is identified as a major contributor to workpiece inaccuracy. The phenomenon is studied via in situ vibrational measurements during cutting and also by the analysis of the workpiece surface metrology of ultra precision diamond face turned aluminum 6061-T6. The manifestation of vibrations in the feed and in-feed directions of the workpiece was studied over a broadband of disturbance frequencies. It is found that the waviness error measured on the cut workpiece surface was significantly larger than that caused by the feed marks during cutting. Thus it was established that unwanted relative tool / workpiece vibrations are the dominant source of surface finish error in ultra precision machining. By deriving representative equations in the polar coordinate system, it was found that the vibrational pattern repeats itself, leading to what are referred to in this thesis as surface finish lobes. The surface finish lobes describe the waviness or form error associated with a particular frequency of unwanted relative tool / workpiece vibration, given a particular feed rate and spindle speed. With the surface finish lobes, the study of vibrations is both simplified and made more systematic. Knowing a priori the wavelength range caused by relative tool / workpiece vibration also allows one to extract considerable vibration content information from a small white light interferometry field of view. It was demonstrated analytically that the error caused by relative tool / workpiece vibration is always distinct from the surface roughness caused by the feed rate. It was also shown that the relative tool / workpiece vibration-induced wavelength in the feed direction has a limited and repeating range. Additionally, multiple disturbance frequencies can produce the same error wavelength on the workpiece surface. Since the meaningful error wavelength range is finite given the size of the part and repeating, study then focussed on this small and manageable range of wavelengths. This range of wavelengths in turn encompasses a broadband range of possible disturbance frequencies, due to the repetition described by the surface finish lobes. Over this finite range of wavelengths, for different machining conditions, the magnitude of the waviness error resulting on the cut workpiece surface was compared with the actual relative tool / workpiece vibrational magnitude itself. It was found that several opportunities occur in ultra precision machining to mitigate the vibrational effect on the workpiece surface. The first opportunity depends only on the feed rate and spindle speed. Essentially, it is possible to force the wavelength resulting from an unwanted relative tool / workpiece vibration to a near infinite length, thus eliminating its effect in the workpiece feed direction. Further, for a given disturbance frequency, various speed and feed rate combinations are capable of producing this effect. However, this possibility exists only when a single, dominant and fixed disturbance frequency is present in the process. By considering the tool nose geometry, depth of cut, and vibrational amplitude over the surface finish lobe finite range, it was found that the cutting parameters exhibit an attenuating or filtering effect on vibrations. Thus, cutting parameters serve to mitigate the vibrational effect on the finished workpiece over certain wavelengths. The filter curves associated with various feed rates were compared. These filter curves describe the magnitude of error on the ultra precision face turned workpiece surface compared with the original unwanted tool / workpiece vibrational magnitude. It was demonstrated with experimental data that these filter curves are physically evident on the ultra precision diamond face turned workpiece surface. It was further shown that the surface roughness on the workpiece surface caused by the feed rate was reduced with relative tool / workpiece vibrations, and in some cases the feed mark wavelength was changed altogether. Mean arithmetic surface roughness curves were also constructed, and the filtering phenomenon was demonstrated over a broadband of disturbance frequencies. It is well established that a decrease in the feed rate reduces the surface roughness in machining. However, it was demonstrated that the improved surface finish observed with a slower feed rate in ultra precision diamond face turning was actually because it more effectively mitigated the vibrational effect on the workpiece surface over a broadband of disturbance frequencies. Experimental findings validated this observation. By only considering the effect of vibrations on the surface finish waviness error, it was shown that the workpiece diamond face turned with a feed rate of 2 {tm / rev has a mean arithmetic surface roughness, Ra , that was 43 per cent smaller than when a feed rate of 10 μm / rev was used. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

O presente estudo aborda a fronteira da manufatura de ultraprecisão (UP) da zircônia tetragonal policristalina estabilizada com 3 mol% de ítria (3Y-TZP), realizado por meio da lapidorretificação Ud. A crescente demanda por produtos de cerâmicas avançadas com: elevado acabamento e integridade superficial; alta exatidão de forma; e menor custo de fabricação, tem fomentado pesquisas em diversas áreas da nanociência e nanotecnologia (N&N), visando sobrepujar as limitações ou agregando as principais vantagens dos tradicionais processos de retificação, lapidação e polimento. Em decorrência das excepcionais propriedades mecânicas, a cerâmica 3Y-TZP tem sido extensivamente aplicada na indústria. A 3Y-TZP, entretanto, pode apresentar a desestabilização da sua fase tetragonal em diferentes situações e condições, por exemplo, tendo início na própria manufatura, durante sua usinagem, podendo comprometer seu desempenho. Dessa forma, a 3Y-TZP pode ser considerada um material chave para avaliar e qualificar os processos abrasivos que visam padrão ouro de qualidade que, portanto, não devem suscitar a transformação martensítica. Em meio à pluralidade de processos, destaca-se a lapidorretificação Ud. A presente pesquisa estudou a manufatura UP de superfícies planas de zircônia TZ-3Y-E lapidorretificadas com rebolos de SiC de liga epóxi, almejando rugosidade nanométrica e integridade superficial sem danos microestruturais. Discos de TZ-3Y-E foram prensados isostaticamente a 200 MPa e sinterizados a 1400°C por 2 horas. Os discos foram caracterizados por meio de ensaios de: microdureza; perfilometria de contato e óptica; MEV-FEG; espectroscopia Raman; DRX; e microscopia confocal de epi-fluorescência. Os projetos mecânico e eletroeletrônico da Lapidorretificadora Fiocchi foram evoluídos na direção da retificação cerâmica UP. Os resultados demostraram que o projeto evolutivo da lapidorretificadora Fiocchi foi bem sucedido. A execução e controle das etapas de processamento cerâmico foram fundamentais para obter corpos cerâmicos densos e homogêneos, compatíveis com o acabamento aspirado. Os parâmetros de usinagem que se destacaram foram: profundidade de dressagem de 0,1 mm; pressão de lapidorretificação de 100 kPa; 100 rpm do rebolo e porta-peça; e emulsão (1:40) aplicada por MQF. A aspiração dos resíduos sobre o rebolo melhorou em 21,6% o acabamento, todavia a associação de abrasão dois (rebolo) e três corpos (abrasivos soltos) reduziu em 57,15% a rugosidade. O macroefeito foi visível nos rebolos de #800, #600 e #300 dressados com Ud = 1. A menor rugosidade, Ra = 60,63 nm, proveio do rebolo #300 dressado com Ud=5. O menor desvio de planeza, 0,308 &#956;m, foi obtido com o rebolo de #800 e Ud = 3. O processo alcançou condições de plasticidade da zircônia que apontam para o predomínio dos mecanismos de remoção de microcorte e pulverização de material, sem ocorrência de microtrinca. Segundo ensaios de DRX e Espectroscopia Raman, a lapidorretificação Ud não provocou transformação martensítica. Todavia, o rebolo de #300 gerou alargamento assimétrico dos picos tetragonais nas proximidades de 2&#952; = 35° e 39° e a reversão das intensidades dos picos tetragonais a 40° e 41°. A reversão foi atribuída a mudança do domínio ferroelástico e a reorientação de planos cristalográficos em nível de cristalito. Os estudos sugerem que a usinagem introduziu tensão residual de compressão que pode ter estabilizado a fase romboédrica. Não há relato de processo capaz de alcançar acabamento nanométrico similar com mesmo tamanho e tipo de abrasivo. A lapidorretificação Ud pode substituir o engajamento da retificação, lapidação e polimento de cerâmica avançada. / The present study focuses on the border of ultra-precision (UP) manufacturing of 3 mol% yttria tetragonal zirconia polycrystal (3Y-TZP), carried out by Ud-lap grinding. The increasing demand for advanced ceramic products with: high surface finish and integrity; high form accuracy; and lower manufacturing cost, has encourage research in several areas of nanoscience and nanotechnology (N&N), to overcome the limitations or adding the main advantages of traditional grinding, lapping, and polishing processes. 3Y-TZP ceramics has been extensively applied by industry due to its exceptional mechanical properties. The 3Y-TZP, however, can present destabilization of its tetragonal phase in different situations and conditions. In the beginning of its manufacture, during its machining for instance, which may compromise its performance. Thus, the 3Y-TZP can be considered a key material to evaluate and qualify abrasive processes aiming gold standard quality that, therefore, should not raise the martensitic transformation. In the midst of plurality of processes, it is noteworthy the Ud-lap grinding. This research studied the UP manufacture of flat TZ-3Y-E zirconia surfaces lap ground with epoxy binder SiC grinding wheels, aiming to nanometer roughness and microstructural integrity without damage. Discs of TZ-3Y-E were isostatically pressed at 200 MPa and sintered at 1400 °C for 2 hours. The discs were characterized by tests of: microhardness; contact and optical profilometry; FEG-SEM; Raman spectroscopy; XRD; and confocal epi-fluorescence. Mechanical and electric-electronic designs of Fiocchi lap grinder were developed toward the UP ceramic grinding. Results showed that the developmental design of Fiocchi lap grinder was successful. The accomplishment and control of ceramic processing stages were essential for dense and homogenous ceramic bodies, compatible with the finish aspired. The machining parameters that stood out were: 0.1 mm depth of dressing; 100 kPa lap grinding pressure; 100 rpm grinding wheel and workpiece-holder; and emulsion applied by MQF. Suction of debris on the grinding wheel has improved finishing in 21.6%, however the combination of two-body abrasion (grinding wheel) and three-body abrasion (loose abrasives) decreased roughness in 57.15%. The macroeffect was visible on #800, #600, and #300 dressed with Ud = 1. The best finishing, Ra = 60.63 nm, came from #300 grinding wheel dressed with Ud = 5. The smallest flatness deviation, 0.308 &#956;m, was obtained with the #800 grinding wheel and Ud = 3. The process has achieved zirconia plasticity conditions pointing towards predominance of microcutting and pulverization material removal mechanism without causing microcrack. According to XRD and Raman spectroscopy, the Ud-lap grinding caused no martensitic transformation. However, #300 grinding wheel has generated asymmetric broadening of the tetragonal peaks close to 2&#952; = 35° e 39° and reversal of the intensities of 40° and 41° tetragonal peaks. The reversal was attributed to ferroelastic switching and reorientation of crystallographic planes into crystallite level. Studies suggest that the machining has introduced compressive residual stress that may have stabilized rhombohedral phase. There is no report of an abrasive process capable of achieving similar nanometric finish with same grit size and type of abrasive. The Ud-lap grinding can replace the engagement of grinding, lapping, and polishing of advanced ceramics.

O presente estudo aborda a fronteira da manufatura de ultraprecisão (UP) da zircônia tetragonal policristalina estabilizada com 3 mol% de ítria (3Y-TZP), realizado por meio da lapidorretificação Ud. A crescente demanda por produtos de cerâmicas avançadas com: elevado acabamento e integridade superficial; alta exatidão de forma; e menor custo de fabricação, tem fomentado pesquisas em diversas áreas da nanociência e nanotecnologia (N&N), visando sobrepujar as limitações ou agregando as principais vantagens dos tradicionais processos de retificação, lapidação e polimento. Em decorrência das excepcionais propriedades mecânicas, a cerâmica 3Y-TZP tem sido extensivamente aplicada na indústria. A 3Y-TZP, entretanto, pode apresentar a desestabilização da sua fase tetragonal em diferentes situações e condições, por exemplo, tendo início na própria manufatura, durante sua usinagem, podendo comprometer seu desempenho. Dessa forma, a 3Y-TZP pode ser considerada um material chave para avaliar e qualificar os processos abrasivos que visam padrão ouro de qualidade que, portanto, não devem suscitar a transformação martensítica. Em meio à pluralidade de processos, destaca-se a lapidorretificação Ud. A presente pesquisa estudou a manufatura UP de superfícies planas de zircônia TZ-3Y-E lapidorretificadas com rebolos de SiC de liga epóxi, almejando rugosidade nanométrica e integridade superficial sem danos microestruturais. Discos de TZ-3Y-E foram prensados isostaticamente a 200 MPa e sinterizados a 1400°C por 2 horas. Os discos foram caracterizados por meio de ensaios de: microdureza; perfilometria de contato e óptica; MEV-FEG; espectroscopia Raman; DRX; e microscopia confocal de epi-fluorescência. Os projetos mecânico e eletroeletrônico da Lapidorretificadora Fiocchi foram evoluídos na direção da retificação cerâmica UP. Os resultados demostraram que o projeto evolutivo da lapidorretificadora Fiocchi foi bem sucedido. A execução e controle das etapas de processamento cerâmico foram fundamentais para obter corpos cerâmicos densos e homogêneos, compatíveis com o acabamento aspirado. Os parâmetros de usinagem que se destacaram foram: profundidade de dressagem de 0,1 mm; pressão de lapidorretificação de 100 kPa; 100 rpm do rebolo e porta-peça; e emulsão (1:40) aplicada por MQF. A aspiração dos resíduos sobre o rebolo melhorou em 21,6% o acabamento, todavia a associação de abrasão dois (rebolo) e três corpos (abrasivos soltos) reduziu em 57,15% a rugosidade. O macroefeito foi visível nos rebolos de #800, #600 e #300 dressados com Ud = 1. A menor rugosidade, Ra = 60,63 nm, proveio do rebolo #300 dressado com Ud=5. O menor desvio de planeza, 0,308 &#956;m, foi obtido com o rebolo de #800 e Ud = 3. O processo alcançou condições de plasticidade da zircônia que apontam para o predomínio dos mecanismos de remoção de microcorte e pulverização de material, sem ocorrência de microtrinca. Segundo ensaios de DRX e Espectroscopia Raman, a lapidorretificação Ud não provocou transformação martensítica. Todavia, o rebolo de #300 gerou alargamento assimétrico dos picos tetragonais nas proximidades de 2&#952; = 35° e 39° e a reversão das intensidades dos picos tetragonais a 40° e 41°. A reversão foi atribuída a mudança do domínio ferroelástico e a reorientação de planos cristalográficos em nível de cristalito. Os estudos sugerem que a usinagem introduziu tensão residual de compressão que pode ter estabilizado a fase romboédrica. Não há relato de processo capaz de alcançar acabamento nanométrico similar com mesmo tamanho e tipo de abrasivo. A lapidorretificação Ud pode substituir o engajamento da retificação, lapidação e polimento de cerâmica avançada. / The present study focuses on the border of ultra-precision (UP) manufacturing of 3 mol% yttria tetragonal zirconia polycrystal (3Y-TZP), carried out by Ud-lap grinding. The increasing demand for advanced ceramic products with: high surface finish and integrity; high form accuracy; and lower manufacturing cost, has encourage research in several areas of nanoscience and nanotechnology (N&N), to overcome the limitations or adding the main advantages of traditional grinding, lapping, and polishing processes. 3Y-TZP ceramics has been extensively applied by industry due to its exceptional mechanical properties. The 3Y-TZP, however, can present destabilization of its tetragonal phase in different situations and conditions. In the beginning of its manufacture, during its machining for instance, which may compromise its performance. Thus, the 3Y-TZP can be considered a key material to evaluate and qualify abrasive processes aiming gold standard quality that, therefore, should not raise the martensitic transformation. In the midst of plurality of processes, it is noteworthy the Ud-lap grinding. This research studied the UP manufacture of flat TZ-3Y-E zirconia surfaces lap ground with epoxy binder SiC grinding wheels, aiming to nanometer roughness and microstructural integrity without damage. Discs of TZ-3Y-E were isostatically pressed at 200 MPa and sintered at 1400 °C for 2 hours. The discs were characterized by tests of: microhardness; contact and optical profilometry; FEG-SEM; Raman spectroscopy; XRD; and confocal epi-fluorescence. Mechanical and electric-electronic designs of Fiocchi lap grinder were developed toward the UP ceramic grinding. Results showed that the developmental design of Fiocchi lap grinder was successful. The accomplishment and control of ceramic processing stages were essential for dense and homogenous ceramic bodies, compatible with the finish aspired. The machining parameters that stood out were: 0.1 mm depth of dressing; 100 kPa lap grinding pressure; 100 rpm grinding wheel and workpiece-holder; and emulsion applied by MQF. Suction of debris on the grinding wheel has improved finishing in 21.6%, however the combination of two-body abrasion (grinding wheel) and three-body abrasion (loose abrasives) decreased roughness in 57.15%. The macroeffect was visible on #800, #600, and #300 dressed with Ud = 1. The best finishing, Ra = 60.63 nm, came from #300 grinding wheel dressed with Ud = 5. The smallest flatness deviation, 0.308 &#956;m, was obtained with the #800 grinding wheel and Ud = 3. The process has achieved zirconia plasticity conditions pointing towards predominance of microcutting and pulverization material removal mechanism without causing microcrack. According to XRD and Raman spectroscopy, the Ud-lap grinding caused no martensitic transformation. However, #300 grinding wheel has generated asymmetric broadening of the tetragonal peaks close to 2&#952; = 35° e 39° and reversal of the intensities of 40° and 41° tetragonal peaks. The reversal was attributed to ferroelastic switching and reorientation of crystallographic planes into crystallite level. Studies suggest that the machining has introduced compressive residual stress that may have stabilized rhombohedral phase. There is no report of an abrasive process capable of achieving similar nanometric finish with same grit size and type of abrasive. The Ud-lap grinding can replace the engagement of grinding, lapping, and polishing of advanced ceramics.

Metrology is the science of measurement. It is also a prerequisite for maintaining a high quality in all manufacturing processes. In this thesis we will present the demands and solutions for ultra-precision metrology in the manufacturing of lithography masks for the TV-display industry. The extreme challenge that needs to be overcome is a measurement uncertainty of 10 nm on an absolute scale of more that 2 meters in X and Y. Materials such as metal, ceramic composites, quartz or glass are highly affected by the surrounding temperature when tolerances are specified at nanometer levels. Also the fact that the refractive index of air in the interferometers measuring absolute distances is affected by temperature, pressure, humidity and CO2 contents makes the reference measurements really challenging. This goes hand in hand with the ability of how to design a mask writer, a pattern generator with a performance good enough for writing masks for the display industry with sub-micron accuracy over areas of square meters.  As in many other areas in the industry high quality metrology is the key for success in developing high accuracy production tools. The aim of this thesis is therefore to discuss the metrology requirements of mask making for display screens. Defects that cause stripes in the image of a display, the so called “Mura” effect, are extremely difficult to measure as they are caused by spatially systematic errors in the mask writing process in the range of 10-20 nm. These errors may spatially extend in several hundreds of mm and are superposed by random noise with significantly higher amplitude compared to the 10-20 nm.  A novel method for measuring chromium patterns on glass substrates will also be presented in this thesis. This method will be compared to methods based on CCD and CMOS images. Different methods have been implementedin the Micronic MMS1500 large area measuring machine, which is the metrology tool used by the mask industry, for verifying the masks made by the Micronic mask writers. Using alternative methods in the same system has been very efficient for handling different measurement situations. Some of  the discussed methods are also used by the writers for calibration purposes. / QC 20110517

Ultraprecision single point diamond turning is required to produce parts with sub-nanometer surface roughness and sub-micrometer surface profiles tolerances. These parts have applications in the optics industry, where tight form accuracy is required while achieving high surface finish quality. Generally, parts can be polished to achieve the desired finish, but then the form accuracy can easily be lost in the process rendering the part unusable. Currently, most mid to low spatial frequency surface finish errors are inspected offline. This is done by physically removing the workpiece from the machining fixture and mounting the part in a laser interferometer. This action introduces errors in itself through minute differences in the support conditions of the over constrained part on a machine as compared to the mounting conditions used for part measurement. Once removed, the fixture induced stresses and the part’s internal residual stresses relax and change the shape of the generally thin parts machined in these applications. Thereby, the offline inspection provides an erroneous description of the performance of the machine. This research explores the use of a single, high resolution, capacitance sensor to quickly and qualitatively measure the low to mid spatial frequencies on the workpiece surface, while it is mounted in a fixture on a standard ultraprecision single point diamond turning machine after a standard facing operation. Following initial testing, a strong qualitative correlation exists between the surface profiling on a standard offline system and this online measuring system. Despite environmental effects and the effects of the machine on the measurement system, the capacitive system with some modifications and awareness of its measurement method is a viable option for measuring mid to low spatial frequencies on a workpiece surface mounted on an ultraprecision machine with a resolution of 1nm with an error band of ±5nm with a 20kHz bandwidth. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)