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Thesis (Masters Diploma (Technology)--Cape Technikon, Cape Town,1993 / Various experimental and established membranes were tested on industrial effluents. Ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis and nanofiltration membranes were used in various applications. Research was done on aspects such as the cleaning of fouled membranes, production quality control and process development. Polyvinyl alcohol ultra-thin-film reverse osmosis membranes were manufactured for the desalination of brackish water to a potable standard. The membranes were manufactured in the tubular configuration. Experimental ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis and nanofiltration membranes were tested on cooling water blowdown on a laboratory-scale. On-site testing was done directly on the effluent at a later stage. A s!udy was also conducted to determine the effect of gel-polarization on membrane performance. The gel-layer model was used to predict the limiting flux of specific membranes. Membrane processes were also applied in the fractionation of wine-lees to provide usable by-products such as yeast cells and potassium bitartrate. Ultrafiltration membranes operated in diafiltration mode were used to "wash" the slurry at different solid concentrations. The bitartrate-rich permeate collected from ultrafiltration was then concentrated using reverse osmosis and nanofiltration to allow subsequent precipitation of the product.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior, CAPES

Orientador: Walkiria Hanada Viotto / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-03T22:21:34Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Ferreira_DanielaNunes_M.pdf: 1136425 bytes, checksum: db7319f8dbfb05eece9d3f83668bad71 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2004 / Resumo: O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a influência do uso de retentados de ultrafiltração de baixo fator de concentração na composição, rendimento, proteólise, propriedades viscoelásticas e funcionais, microestrutura e aceitação sensorial do queijo mussarela de reduzido teor de gordura feito por acidificação direta com ácido acético. Dois fatores de concentração (FC 1,4 e 1,8) foram comparados a um controle (leite não ultrafiltrado) e os ensaios foram realizados em triplicata. Leite, retentado, permeado, soro, água de filagem e queijo foram pesados e suas composições determinadas. Foram calculados as recuperações de gordura e de proteína e o rendimento de fabricação. Os queijos foram analisados nos dias 4, 11, 18, 25 e 32 do armazenamento refrigerado a 4ºC em relação a pH, acidez titulável, teor de nitrogênio solúvel (NS) a pH 4,6 e em 12% TCA e capacidade de derretimento. Nos dias 5, 12, 19, 26 e 33, os queijos foram avaliados quanto a capacidade de retenção de água, cor antes e após derretimento, óleo livre e propriedades reológicas (teste de compressão uniaxial e relaxação). A microestrutura dos queijos foi avaliada através de Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura (MEV) no 26º dia após a fabricação e a aceitação sensorial foi verificada no 27° dia do armazenamento refrigerado. Os queijos feitos com retentados apresentaram menores teores de proteína e de cálcio (p<0,05), tendência de maior teor de umidade, menor recuperação de gordura na água de filagem (p<0,05) e maior rendimento real (p<0,05). O uso de retentados não influenciou significativamente (p>0,05) o pH, acidez titulável, proteólise, capacidade de retenção de água e capacidade de derretimento do queijo. Os queijos feitos com retentados apresentaram menor formação de óleo livre, menor elasticidade e menor firmeza (p<0,05). Os índices de proteólise aumentaram significativamente durante o tempo de armazenamento; no entanto, este aumento foi pequeno em relação aos normalmente encontrados para queijo mussarela, o que provavelmente está associado à pequena quantidade de coalho utilizado na fabricação do queijo. Isto resultou na manutenção das propriedades funcionais e reológicas constantes (p>0,05) ao longo do tempo de armazenamento. O eletroforetograma dos queijos confirma a lenta evolução da proteólise e evidencia que esta ocorreu fundamentalmente em virtude da ação do coalho residual. Os queijos feitos a partir de retentados apresentaram cor mais clara, provavelmente devido ao efeito de homogeneização da gordura que pode ter ocorrido durante a ultrafiltração do leite. Todos os queijos apresentaram uma rede protéica bastante densa devido à redução do teor de gordura. Os queijos feitos com retentados parecem ter apresentado uma rede protéica menos compacta, provavelmente em função de seu menor teor de proteína e tendência de maior teor de umidade e isto pode ter refletido nas diferenças em relação às propriedades reológicas. A qualidade sensorial do queijo não foi prejudicada pelo uso de retentados de baixo fator de concentração. Os queijos tiveram boa aceitação, apesar do reduzido teor de gordura, sendo similar à de queijos mussarela light comerciais. O uso de retentados de baixo fator de concentração se mostrou viável na produção de queijo mussarela de reduzido teor de gordura por acidificação direta. Como o fator de concentração não influenciou significativamente a qualidade dos queijos, o FC 1,8 é mais indicado por viabilizar um maior aumento da capacidade da planta. No entanto, são necessários maiores estudos no sentido de aprimorar as propriedades funcionais, em especial a capacidade de derretimento, visto que este é um atributo de fundamental importância para o queijo mussarela / Abstract: Use of low concentration factor ultrafiltration retentates on composition, yield, proteolysis, rheological and functional properties, microstructure and sensory acceptability of reduced fat Mozzarella cheese made by direct acidification was evaluated. Two concentration factors (1.4 and 1.8) were compared with a control (semi-skimmed milk) and three trials were carried out. Milk, retentate, permeate, whey, stretching water and cheese were weighted and their composition were determined. Fat and protein recoveries and yield were also calculated. Titratable acidity, pH, pH 4.6-soluble nitrogen, 12% TCA-soluble nitrogen and melting of cheese were determined at 4, 11, 18, 25 and 32 d of refrigerated storage at 4°C, and at 5, 12, 19, 26 and 33 d, water holding capacity, color of unmelted and melted cheese, free oil formation and rheological properties (uniaxial compression and stress relaxation tests) were evaluated. Cheese microstructure was evaluated by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) at 26 d after manufacturing and the sensory acceptability were determined at 27 d of refrigerated storage. Cheese made with retentates had lower protein and calcium contents (p<0.05), tendency of higher moisture, lower fat recovery in stretching water and higher actual yield than control cheese. The use of retentates had no significant influence (p>0.05) on pH, acidity, proteolysis, water holding capacity and melting behaviour of cheese. Free oil formation, elasticity and firmness of cheeses were reduced when using low concentration factor retentates. The levels of proteolysis increased significantly during storage, however this increase was slow which is probably associated to the small amount of rennet used in cheese manufacture. This fact is probably responsible for no alterations of the functional and rheological properties during storage. The electrophoretogram confirms the slow changes in proteolysis and indicates that it was due to residual rennet action. Cheeses made with retentates were whiter than the control cheese, probably due to the homogenization effect that could be occurred during ultrafiltration of milk. All cheeses showed a dense protein network because of fat reduction. It seems that cheeses made with retentates had a less compact protein matrix probably due to their lower protein content and tendency of higher moisture that could reflect in the rheological differences of cheeses. The sensory quality was not impaired by the use of retentates. All cheeses had good acceptability, despite of the fat reduction, that was similar to the comercial light Mozzarella cheeses. The use of low concentration factor retentates in production of reduced fat Mozzarella cheese by direct acidification is viable and how the concentration factor did not affect significantly cheese quality, CF 1.8 is recommended because of higher improvement of plant capacity. However more research is needed in order to improve functional properties, especially melting that is an important attribute of Mozzarella cheese / Mestrado / Mestre em Tecnologia de Alimentos

No description available.

Ph.D. (Chemistry) / The ultrafiltration membranes presented in this study were synthesized using the phase inversion method by casting on a nonwoven fabric. The polymer solutions were mixed with synthetic and bio additives in order to improve the resultant membrane performance. Synthetic additives (polyethylene glycol (PEG) and polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP)) were compared with a novel and cheap bio additive, lignin. Based on the knowledge that the additives must be soluble in water in order to increase the pore sizes of the membranes, sodium hydroxide was used to elute residual additives that remain in the membrane during coagulation. In order to trace the residual additives remaining, ATR-FTIR was used. Contact-angle analysis and water-absorption experiments were used to elucidate the hydrophilic properties of the prepared membranes. Membranes modified with lignin (Lig) were found to absorb more water (94% water uptake) when compared to the other membranes. In general, the contact angles were found to be low for membranes that were treated with NaOH. Membrane permeability followed the trend, Lig_PSf>PVP_PSf>PEG_PSf which is similar to the trend followed during water uptake. Pore size and pore distribution analysis showed that membranes modified with lignin and PVP had a narrow range (had pore sizes ranging from 10 to 24 nm) compared to that of PEG-PSf membrane (which ranged from 2.5 to 22 nm). A Robeson plot showed that Lig_PSf membranes had high separation factors regardless of the size of the solute being rejected. This study shows the possibility of using cheap and readily available additives to increase the performance of membranes......

New approaches to the application of membranes for the production of potable water are constantly being sought after in anticipation of future demands for increasingly rigorous water quality standards and reduced environmental impact. A major limitation, however, is membrane fouling, which manifests itself as a continual reduction in flux over time and thus restricts the practical implementation to restore flux. Mechanical and chemical methods have been implemented to restore flux to ultrafiltration systems, but these either result in a break in the process operation or lead to membrane damage or additional pollution problems. This project was aimed to develop a 'defouling on demand' stategy for cleaning membranes used during brown water ultrafiltration. The process involves the use of activatable peroxidase enzymes, which were immobilised onto flat sheet polysulphone membranes. Following flux decline which reaches a critical level with the build-up of the foulant layer, the immobilised enzyme layer was activated by the addition of a chemical activator solution, in this case hydrogen peroxidase and manganous sulphate. Manganese peroxidase was found to be the most effective enzyme at alleviating fouling by degrading the foulant layer formed on the membrane surface and hence restored flux to the ultrafiltration system. A 93% flux improvement was observed when manganese peroxidase was activated when 800uM manganous sulphate, 100mM hydrogen peroxide were added in the presence of a manganese chelator, lactate. The concept and the potential benefits this system holds will be discussed in further detail.

To minimize membrane fouling many water treatment plants pre-treat water prior to microfiltration (MF) or ultrafiltration (UF). Coagulation/flocculation/sedimentation is a common form of pre-treatment, but little research has been conducted on floatation as a part of the pre-treatment. The objective of this thesis is to compare pre-treatment with floatation and with sedimentation for Ottawa River water, a typical Northern Canadian water with a high natural organic matter (NOM) content and a large hydrophobic (HPO) NOM fraction. Fouling tests consisted of multiple filtration/backwashing cycles performed by an automated bench-scale UF hollow fiber membrane system. Test were conducted with Ottawa River water (ORW) and ORW subjected to three different types of pre-treatment conducted at closely-located full-scale water treatment plants, including one using floatation. Both Alum pre-treatments resulted in decreases in NOM (63% and 68% TOC) and HPO NOM (56% and 68%TOC) which helped to reduce fouling. However, the remaining NOM and HPO NOM still caused significant hydraulically and chemical irreversible fouling. The water pre-treated with floatation produced the least severe hydraulically irreversible fouling for all experiments while Raw ORW produced the highest. During the early stages of membrane filtration (~10 hours), the TMP sharply increases which may imply that adsorption is dominant. Statistical analysis during the initial stages of filtration showed that the HPO fraction of NOM was linked to hydraulically irreversible fouling, which may be attributed to adsorption. Raw ORW also had the highest hydraulically reversible fouling while all pre-treatments were able to reduce this type of fouling. Statistical analysis suggested that the transphilic (TPI) fraction of NOM and particulate organic carbon (POC) were responsible for hydraulically reversible fouling during subcritical flux experiments, which may be attributed to cake formation on the membrane surface. It was found that for all waters and experiments, hydraulically irreversible fouling was greater than hydraulically reversible fouling. This may be because of the high HPO concentrations in the ORW. Hydraulically reversible fouling and backwash efficiencies were found to fluctuate with time. It is hypothesised that the cake formation adheres to the membrane surface and is not fully removed until enough backwash pressure has developed. Further investigation into alternative cleaning procedures is required as the NaOH cleaning was not very effective for some of the pre-treated waters.

In this work polymeric materials were developed to be used as a solvent and heat resistance membrane for different applications. In ultrafiltration, poly (ether imide sulfone) membranes were manufactured by combining phase inversion and functionalization reaction between epoxy groups and amine modified polyether oligomers (Jeffamine®). Polysilsesquioxanes or oligo silsesquioxanes containing epoxy functionalities were in-situ grown in the casting solution and made available for further reaction with amines in the coagulation/annealing baths. Water permeances up to 1500 l m-2 h-1 bar-1 were obtained with sharp pore size distribution and a pore diameter peak at 66 nm, confirmed by porosimetry, allowing 99.2 % rejection of γ-globulin. The membranes were stable in 50:50 dimethylformamide/water, 50:50 N-methyl pyrrolidone/water and 100 % tetrahydrofuran. In pervaporation, Novel hydrophobic Hyflon®/Extem® and Hyflon®/PVDF were developed and investigated for ethylene glycol dehydration and n-butanol dehydration respectively. For ethylene glycol different Extem® concentrations were evaluated with regard to both flux and amount of water in the permeate side. Eighteen (18) wt% gave more than 90 wt% water in the permeate. Increasing feed temperature from 25 to 85°C increased the water flux from 31 to 91 g m-2 h-1 when using 5 wt% water in ethylene glycol as feed. The water flux of 40 wt% water:ethylene glycol at 45°C was found to be 350 g m-2 h-1. And for n-butanol dehydration the coating protocols for thin defect-free Hyflon® selective layer on the PVDF support was optimized. Water and n-butanol transport was measured, analyzing the effect of operating conditions. The water flux through the newly developed membranes was higher than 150 g m-2 h-1 with selectivity for water higher than 99 wt%. The membrane application can be extended to other solvents, supporting an effective and simple method for dehydration with hydrophobic membranes. In membrane distillation, PVDF and Extem® membranes before and after coating with Hyflon® were examined for ionic liquid dehydration on 23.6 mS cm-1 feed concentration. Different feed temperatures and flow rates were evaluated for flux as well as rejection. High flux was obtained at 70°C and increased at high flow rate from 2 Kg m2 h to 10 Kg m2 h.

The use of low-pressure membranes, mainly ultrafiltration (UF), has emerged in the last decade and began to show acceptance as a novel pretreatment process for seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) desalination. This is mainly due to the superior water quality provided by these membranes, in addition to reduction in chemicals consumption compared to conventional methods. However, membrane fouling remains the main drawback of this technology. Therefore, frequent cleaning of these membranes is required to maintain water flux and its quality. Usually, after a series of backwash using UF permeate chemical cleaning is required under some conditions to fully recover the operating flux. Frequent chemical cleaning will probably decrease the life time of the membrane, increase costs, and will have some effects on the environment. The new cleaning method proposed in this study consists of using a solution saturated with carbon dioxide (CO2) to clean UF membranes. Under the drop in pressure, this solution will become in a supersaturated state and bubbles will start to nucleate on the surface of the membrane and its pores from this solution resulting in the removal of the fouling material deposited on the membrane. Different compositions of fouling solutions including the use of organic compounds such as sodium alginate and colloidal 5 silica with different concentrations were studied using synthetic seawater with different concentrations. This cleaning method was then compared to the backwash using Milli-Q water and showed an improved performance compared to it. An operational modification to this cleaning technique was then investigated which includs a series of sudden pressure drop during the backwash process. This enhanced technique showed an even better performance in cleaning the membrane, especially at severe fouling conditions. In most cases, the membrane permeability was fully recovered even at harsh conditions where conventional backwash failed to maintain a stable operation. Therefore, the new cleaning method might provide an efficient and environmentally friendly alternative cleaning technique to low-pressure membranes technology in the future.