A interação existente entre a água superficial e subterrânea nas bacias hidrográficas faz necessário o gerenciamento conjunto de ambos os recursos. Nesse sentido, o Soil Moisture Model (SMM) e a ferramenta WEAP (Water Evaluation and Planning system) foram utilizados para simular o sistema atual e avaliar os impactos do uso conjunto dos recursos hídricos superficial e subterrâneo nas bacias que abastecem o município de São Carlos, SP. O modelo foi calibrado com o objetivo de avaliar o comportamento das bacias no período de 1997-2007. Para a vazão mensal, as etapas de calibração e validação do WEAP geraram coeficientes de Nash-Sutcliffe e de porcentagem de viés considerados bons pela literatura. A robustez e facilidade de uso do modelo foram analisados, avaliando seu potencial como sistema de apoio a decisão. Também, foram gerados seis cenários futuros a partir da combinação de mudanças no uso do solo e aumento de demandas usando prioritariamente algum dos dois recursos. Nas simulações feitas para a década de 2030 não se apresentaram diferenças significativas com respeito a variável de uso do solo, contrastando com o comportamento variável da demanda. Os resultados indicaram que o município não apresenta deficiência na quantidade de água necessária para abastecer as demandas futuras, porém o rebaixamento pronunciados do nível estático do aquífero poderá produzir efeitos adversos na operação de poços existentes e no sistema hidrológico geral. / The interaction between surface and groundwater in river basins makes it necessary an integrated management of both resources. In this sense, the o Soil Moisture Model (SMM) and the WEAP (Water Evaluation and Planning system) tool were used to simulate the current system and to evaluate the impacts of the joint use of surface and underground water resources in the basins that supply the city of São Carlos, SP. With the aim of evaluating the behavior of the basins in the period 1997 to 2007. For the monthly flow, the WEAP calibration and validation stages generated Nash-Sutcliffe coefficients and percentage of bias considered goods. The robustness and ease of use of the model were analyzed, evaluating its potential as a decision support system. The results of the simulations for the 2030s for six future scenarios did not show significant differences respect to the variable of land use, different from the behavior with the demand variable. The results indicated that the municipality does not present a deficiency in the quantity of water needed to supply the futures demands. However, the pronounced lowering of the static level of the aquifer could produce adverse effects on the operation of existing wells and the general hydrological system.

nÃo hà / O entendimento de como ocorre o transporte de solutos em Ãguas subterrÃneas à fundamental para o correto gerenciamento deste recurso cada vez mais sujeito a pressÃes antrÃpicas. Para a modelagem deste processo, um parÃmetro fundamental à o coeficiente de dispersÃo hidrodinÃmica, cujo componente mais importante, em meio poroso, à a dispersividade longitudinal (αL). A determinaÃÃo de αL ocorre normalmente atravÃs de experimentos com aplicaÃÃo restrita Ãs Ãreas de interesse e resultados normalmente imprecisos. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo principal calibrar αL em aquÃferos atravÃs do MÃtodo Iterativo do Gradiente de ConcentraÃÃo (MIGC) elaborado a partir de uma adaptaÃÃo da metodologia proposta para o MÃtodo Iterativo do Gradiente HidrÃulico (MIGH). O processo se inicia a partir da simulaÃÃo hidrodinÃmica, posteriormente sÃo inseridas concentraÃÃes obtidas em campo ou hipotÃticas no modelo de simulaÃÃo de transporte de solutos. Em seguida à gerada uma matriz de concentraÃÃes que servirà de base para o processo iterativo do MIGC. Foram estruturados dois modelos, um denominado modelo observado ou fixo, no qual as concentraÃÃes de campo sÃo fixadas e outro modelo denominado de calculado ou nÃo fixo. Ao longo do processo de calibraÃÃo sÃo geradas matrizes de concentraÃÃes que permitem calcular os gradientes espaciais de concentraÃÃo nos modelos fixo e nÃo fixo. A mÃdia dos Ãngulos entre os gradientes de concentraÃÃes observados e calculados e o erro mÃdio quadrÃtico sÃo os critÃrios de convergÃncia para aferir o processo de calibraÃÃo. Nas cinco modelagens apresentadas, os resultados para estes dois critÃrios indicam a eficiÃncia do mÃtodo de calibraÃÃo. Seguindo a metodologia clÃssica de calibraÃÃo de parÃmetros, no MIGC as iteraÃÃes continuam enquanto os valores mÃnimos para os referidos critÃrios nÃo forem atingidos e ocorre, por conseguinte, a alteraÃÃo dos valores da dispersividade longitudinal entre as iteraÃÃes. Este mecanismo à baseado na razÃo entre os gradientes de concentraÃÃes observados e calculados em cada uma das cÃlulas do modelo. Os resultados foram obtidos a partir do uso de concentraÃÃes de nitrato em dois exemplos hipotÃticos com graus de complexidade diferenciados e um caso real aplicado na regiÃo do municÃpio do Crato, inserido na Bacia Sedimentar do Araripe, situada no sul do estado do CearÃ, Brasil. Para os casos estudados houve uma convergÃncia expressiva das mÃdias dos Ãngulos formados entre os gradientes de concentraÃÃo observados e calculados e do erro mÃdio quadrÃtico das concentraÃÃes, obtendo-se, como resultado final, uma matriz com a maioria dos valores de αL prÃximos aos determinados inicialmente. O MIGC se apresenta como um mÃtodo prÃtico e rÃpido para a calibraÃÃo da dispersividade longitudinal. Sugere-se o desenvolvimento de um programa computacional que automatize o MIGC para que o mesmo seja otimizado em situaÃÃes mais complexas. / The understanding of how the transport of solutes in ground water occurs is critical to the proper management of this resource increasingly subjected to thropogenic pressures. In order to model this process, a key parameter is the coefficient of hydrodynamic dispersion, whose most important component in porous environments is the longitudinal dispersivity (αL). The determination of αL usually takes place through experiments restricted to areas of interest and with often inaccurate results. Numerical methods are also used in order to attain parameter estimation. This study aimed mainly at calibrating αL in aquifers through the Iterative Method of the Gradient of Concentration (IMGC) derived from an adaptation of the methodology proposed for the Iterative Method of Hydraulic Gradient (IMHG). The process starts from the hydrodynamic simulation. Later, concentrations obtained from fields or in a hypothetic way are inserted using the model of simulation of solute transportation. Then, a matrix of concentrations is generated, which will work as the basis for the iterative process of IMGC. Two models were structured: one called observed or fixed model in which the concentration field is fixed and another model named calculated or not fixed. Throughout the calibration process arrays of concentrations are generated and used for calculating the spatial concentration of gradients in fixed and not fixed models. The average angle between the gradients of observed and calculated concentrations and the mean squared error are the convergence criteria to assess the calibration process. In the five models presented in this research, the results for these two criteria indicate the efficiency of the calibration method. Following the classical methodology of parameter calibration in the IMGC iterations continue as the minimum values for these criteria are not attained, therefore, the change of the longitudinal dispersivity varies among iterations. This mechanism is based on the ratio between the observed and calculated gradients of concentrations at each model cells. The results were obtained from the use of nitrate concentrations at two hypothetical samples with different degrees of complexity and also with a real case applied int he municipality of Crato, inserted in the Sedimentary Basin region of Araripe. For the cases analyzed in this study, there was a significant decay of the average angle formed between the gradients of observed and calculated concentration and the mean squared error of concentrations, obtaining as a result, a matrix with αL values close to those initially stipulated. IMGC presents itself as a practical method. It is suggested the development of a computer program that automates IMGC so that it is better used in more complex situation.

A sociedade contemporânea cria riscos de todas as ordens, ampliando o significado desse conceito. O risco pode estar associado à ameaças naturais, mas cada vez mais está relacionado à ações humanas, em especial devido ao uso de tecnologias. O uso do solo, tanto para fins agrícolas quanto urbanos, gera possibilidades de contaminação de áreas sensíveis, como é o caso da área de recarga do aqüífero Guarani, em Ribeirão Preto, no Estado de São Paulo, Brasil. Este trabalho objetivou realizar um estudo crítico de como a legislação aplicável às águas subterrâneas tratou a proteção das áreas de recarga do Aqüífero Guarani, frente aos riscos identificados pela literatura no município de Ribeirão Preto. A metodologia empregada foi a análise documental e a realização de entrevistas com os atores envolvidos na gestão desse recurso. Esse município é um dos mais importantes do Estado, além de elevado desenvolvimento econômico, destaca-se por estar situado junto à área de recarga do principal reservatório de água subterrânea do Cone Sul, bem como ter sido alvo de vários projetos para a proteção desse manancial subterrâneo, com destaque ao Projeto Aqüífero Guarani.A formulação de uma política de proteção para as áreas de recarga encerra o desafio de conciliar a gestão dos recursos hídricos com as políticas de uso e ocupação do solo e ambiental. A Política Nacional de Recursos Hídricos tratou o tema de maneira superficial. O Estado de São Paulo, apesar de seu pioneirismo normativo, não conseguiu moldar uma política eficaz. A possibilidade de criar Áreas de Proteção Máxima nas zonas de recarga dos aqüíferos é elogiável, porém as lacunas legais existentes inviabilizam a aplicação prática desse instrumento. No âmbito municipal percebeu-se a priorização dos interesses dos principais setores econômicos em detrimento da proteção dessas áreas. A multidiversidade dos riscos, a ausência de uma política federal que estabeleça diretrizes para as políticas estaduais de recursos hídricos subterrâneos, bem como a falta de integração e articulação entre os diversos órgãos e atores que tratam do tema prejudicou a implantação e aplicação de uma política eficaz para as águas subterrâneas. A proteção das áreas de recarga acaba ocorrendo de forma indireta, via os instrumentos da política ambiental, não porque estes as tenham como objeto, mas como um desdobramento natural da proteção ao meio ambiente. / The contemporary society has created many kinds of risks, enlarging the meaning of this concept. It can be associated to natural disasters, but more and more it is related to human actions, especially because technology use. When soil is used to agricultural or urbane proposes, it creates condition for contamination of sensible areas, such as the Guarani Aquifers recharge area at Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo State, Brazil. This research aimed to analyze how the current subterranean water legislation works in order to protect Guarani Aquifers recharge area, considering risks identified by literature in Ribeirão Preto City. Data were collected by documental analysis and interviews that were conducted to key actors. Ribeirão Preto is considered one of the most important cities of São Paulo State. Its economy is highly developed and it is located in the recharge area of Guarani Aquifer. In addition, the city has been target by many projects of preservation, such as Guarani Aquifer Project. In order to create effective protection policy, the challenge consists of conciliating the hydric resources management with soil and environment policy. The National Water Policy has been leaded with this subject in a very superficial way. Even though São Paulo State has been pioneer in a normative way, it has not been able to create an efficient regulation. The possibility of establishing Maximum Protection Areas in the recharge zones is appreciable, but inconsistent laws create obstacles that interrupt a real application of this instrument. In the municipally level, the priority is the interest of powerful economy sectors instead of the recharge areas protection. The implementation and application of an efficient subterranean water policy is prejudiced by risks diversity, lack of a national policy that indicates directives to the state policy, and lack of integration and articulation among various involved sectors and actors. Recharge areas protection have been realized as an indirect way through environmental instruments. These instruments are not specific, but they reach the recharge areas as a natural consequence of the environmental protection.

As preocupações com o meio ambiente em particular com a água, adquirem especial importância, porque as demandas estão se tornando cada vez maiores, sob o aspecto crescente da população e das atividades industriais. Quando se fala em água subterrânea, a primeira ideia que surge é que ela seja potável. Mas nem sempre isso é uma verdade. Em área urbana, os crescentes números de problemas devido a contaminação, na maioria das vezes por vazamentos de combustíveis oriundos dos tanques de armazenamento dos postos de gasolina. Sem falar nas indústrias que também oferecem potencial risco de contaminação para esses corpos hídricos e são pouco divulgadas. O presente trabalho tem como foco determinar os compostos clorobenzenos por cromatografia de fase gasosa com headspace (CG-HS) em matriz água e validar a metodologia. A metodologia usada neste estudo foi cromatografia de fase gasosa com headspace (CG HS), por ser uma técnica excelente e sensível e é utilizada para determinar compostos voláteis em baixas concentrações. Os dados obtidos foram tratados estatisticamente de modo avaliar a seletividade, os limites de detecção e quantificação, a faixa linear de trabalho, a linearidade e a recuperação. As recuperações variam de 80 a 110%, os coeficientes de variação obtidos foram menor que 20%, todas as substâncias estudadas apresentaram linearidade na faixa de trabalho de 0,8 a 100g.L-1. Foram estudadas 10 amostras de água subterrânea do Município do Rio de Janeiro e nas amostras analisadas foram encontrados todos os compostos em estudo, com faixa de concentração: monoclorobenzeno (<0,8 a 2,988g.L-1); 1,3-diclorobenzeno (<0,8 a 23,067g.L-1); 1,4-diclorobenzeno (nd a 16,160g.L-1); 1,2-diclorobenzeno (<0,8 a 48,685g.L-1); 1,3,5-triclorobenzeno (<0,8 a 21,900g.L-1); 1,2,4-triclorobenzeno (1,007 a 183,808g.L-1) e 1,2,3-triclorobenzeno (<0,8 a 126,886g.L-1) / The concerns with the environment, in particular with water, acquire special importance, because the demands become ever higher, under the growth of the population and industrial activities aspects. When speaking about underground water, the first notion that comes to mind is that it is potable water. But thats not always a true. In urban areas, the increasing numbers of problems due to contamination, is caused, most of time, by leaking gas tanks of gas stations. Not to mention industries that also offer the potential risk of contamination of these water bodies and that less divulged. The present work is focused in determining chlorobenzenes by headspace gas chromatography (HS-GC) in the water and validating its methodology. The methodology used in this work was headspace gas chromatography (HS-CG), because of its excellence technique and sensitive, applied for determining low concentrations volatile compounds. The data was statistically treated so to evaluate the selectivity, quantitation and detection limits, work range linearity, linearity and recovery. The recoveries vary between 80 to 110%, the variation obtained were less than 20%, all compounds present linearity in the work range 0,8 of 100g.L-1. . Ten samples of underground water of Rio de Janeiro were tested, and all the samples contained the studied compounds, as and range concentration: chlorobenzene (<0,8 a 2,988g.L-1), 1,3-dichlorobenzene (<0,8 a 23,067g.L-1), 1,4-dichlorobenzene (nd a 16,160g.L-1), 1,2-dichlorobenzene (<0,8 a 48,685g.L-1), 1,3,5-trichlorobenzene (<0,8 a 21,900g.L-1), 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene (1,007 a 183,808g.L-1) and 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene (<0,8 a 126,886g.L-1)

As preocupações com o meio ambiente em particular com a água, adquirem especial importância, porque as demandas estão se tornando cada vez maiores, sob o aspecto crescente da população e das atividades industriais. Quando se fala em água subterrânea, a primeira ideia que surge é que ela seja potável. Mas nem sempre isso é uma verdade. Em área urbana, os crescentes números de problemas devido a contaminação, na maioria das vezes por vazamentos de combustíveis oriundos dos tanques de armazenamento dos postos de gasolina. Sem falar nas indústrias que também oferecem potencial risco de contaminação para esses corpos hídricos e são pouco divulgadas. O presente trabalho tem como foco determinar os compostos clorobenzenos por cromatografia de fase gasosa com headspace (CG-HS) em matriz água e validar a metodologia. A metodologia usada neste estudo foi cromatografia de fase gasosa com headspace (CG HS), por ser uma técnica excelente e sensível e é utilizada para determinar compostos voláteis em baixas concentrações. Os dados obtidos foram tratados estatisticamente de modo avaliar a seletividade, os limites de detecção e quantificação, a faixa linear de trabalho, a linearidade e a recuperação. As recuperações variam de 80 a 110%, os coeficientes de variação obtidos foram menor que 20%, todas as substâncias estudadas apresentaram linearidade na faixa de trabalho de 0,8 a 100g.L-1. Foram estudadas 10 amostras de água subterrânea do Município do Rio de Janeiro e nas amostras analisadas foram encontrados todos os compostos em estudo, com faixa de concentração: monoclorobenzeno (<0,8 a 2,988g.L-1); 1,3-diclorobenzeno (<0,8 a 23,067g.L-1); 1,4-diclorobenzeno (nd a 16,160g.L-1); 1,2-diclorobenzeno (<0,8 a 48,685g.L-1); 1,3,5-triclorobenzeno (<0,8 a 21,900g.L-1); 1,2,4-triclorobenzeno (1,007 a 183,808g.L-1) e 1,2,3-triclorobenzeno (<0,8 a 126,886g.L-1) / The concerns with the environment, in particular with water, acquire special importance, because the demands become ever higher, under the growth of the population and industrial activities aspects. When speaking about underground water, the first notion that comes to mind is that it is potable water. But thats not always a true. In urban areas, the increasing numbers of problems due to contamination, is caused, most of time, by leaking gas tanks of gas stations. Not to mention industries that also offer the potential risk of contamination of these water bodies and that less divulged. The present work is focused in determining chlorobenzenes by headspace gas chromatography (HS-GC) in the water and validating its methodology. The methodology used in this work was headspace gas chromatography (HS-CG), because of its excellence technique and sensitive, applied for determining low concentrations volatile compounds. The data was statistically treated so to evaluate the selectivity, quantitation and detection limits, work range linearity, linearity and recovery. The recoveries vary between 80 to 110%, the variation obtained were less than 20%, all compounds present linearity in the work range 0,8 of 100g.L-1. . Ten samples of underground water of Rio de Janeiro were tested, and all the samples contained the studied compounds, as and range concentration: chlorobenzene (<0,8 a 2,988g.L-1), 1,3-dichlorobenzene (<0,8 a 23,067g.L-1), 1,4-dichlorobenzene (nd a 16,160g.L-1), 1,2-dichlorobenzene (<0,8 a 48,685g.L-1), 1,3,5-trichlorobenzene (<0,8 a 21,900g.L-1), 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene (1,007 a 183,808g.L-1) and 1,2,3-trichlorobenzene (<0,8 a 126,886g.L-1)

Subtítulo extraído da capa / Subtítulo extraído da capa / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Geociencias / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-09T03:32:24Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Goulart_FernandoCosta_M.pdf: 29309722 bytes, checksum: 646e65dfcc1ca87ca64add214a34ddbf (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007 / Resumo: A questão ambiental no Brasil, em termos de administração de recursos hídricos, constitui uma questão contemporânea da maior importância e enfrenta controvérsias de competência em face da legislação e atribuições nos âmbitos federal e estadual. O presente trabalho visa traçar um panorama da atividade de transporte de água potável através de caminhões-pipa, grau de regularidade e os conflitos existentes na legislação que regulamenta a explotação de água subterrânea. Tem ainda a finalidade de sistematizar a forma como ocorre em nosso Estado o gerenciamento e a fiscalização dessa atividade, os órgãos de fiscalização e controle, além de estudar a qualidade da água dessas empresas e o nível de atendimento às legislações vigentes num quadro de monopólio legal conferido às concessionárias de abastecimento de água. Traçar um panorama da questão hídrica em termos de solução alternativa de abastecimento de água potável, em poucas linhas, é o escopo do presente estudo, que avalia como a atividade de transporte de água a granel vem se desenvolvendo nas regiões estudadas. o estudo permitiu concluir que existem empresas de porte que executam a atividade de forma estruturada e empresarial, com investimentos maciços na produção de água subterrânea e no aparato logístico. Verificou-se, através da generalização de dados comuns às empresas estudadas, que as empresas estão organizadas na forma de uma associação, que abrange todo o território paulista. Para a realização das pesquisas, foram colhidos dados perante órgãos públicos que licenciam e fiscalizam a exploração de água subterrânea, Associação Paulista dos Aguadeiros e nas visitas de campo realizada em todas as empresas associadas. Assim, este trabalho visa colaborar para que o tema seja mais difundido entre a sociedade, pois como recurso nobre e esgotável, não resta dúvida de que neste século a sociedade como um todo cumprirá um importante papel na preservação e escorreita distribuição dos recursos hídricos / Abstract: The environmental subject in Brazil, in terms of administration of water resources, constitutes a contemporary subject of the largest importance and it faces ompetence controversies in face of the legislation and attributions in the federal and state extents. The present work seeks to draw a survey of the activity of transport of drinking water through trucks, regularity degree and the existent conflicts in the legislation that regulates the exploration of underground water. It still has the purpose of systematizing the form howit happens in our State the administration and the fiscalization of this activity, the fiscalization organs and control, besides studying the quality of the water of those companies and the service levei to the effective legislations in a vision law's monopoly attributed supply water concessionaires. To draw a survey of the subject water resources in terms of alternative solution of drinkable water supply, in few lines, it is the target of the present study that evaluates as the activity of water transport in bulk comes if developing in the studied regions. The study allowed to conclude that there are companies of port who execute the activity of structuralized and enterprise form, with massive investments in the underground water production and the logistic apparatus. It was verified, through the generalization of common data to the studied companies, who the companies are organized in the form of an association, which encloses the São Paulo territory alI. For the accomplishment of the research, they had been harvested given before public agencies that permit and fiscalize the underground water exploration, Associação Paulista de Aguadeiros and in the visits of field carried through in ali the companies associates. Thus, this work aims at to collaborate so that the subject more is spread out between the society, therefore as noble and exhaustible resource, it does not remain doubt of that in this century the society as a whole will fulfill to an importantpaper in the preservation and right distribution of the water resources / Mestrado / Administração e Politica de Recursos Minerais / Mestre em Geociências

Orientador: Pedro Wagner Gonçalves / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Geociencias / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-14T21:15:29Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Hagy_RenatoDonato_M.pdf: 1400181 bytes, checksum: b9691aa71a2d37bd90d3310898032759 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009 / Resumo: O ciclo da água é de fundamental importância. Apesar disso, o tratamento desse tema em livros didáticos de ensino básico pouco contribui para a formação de uma idéia científica. Para enfrentar o tratamento fragmentado presente em livros didáticos de Geografia e Ciências, planejamos atividades diferenciadas para investigar como alunos de 11-12 anos de idade interpretam fenômenos relacionados à água subterrânea. Isso conduziu ao exame de uma aula realizada em escola pública do município de Ribeirão Preto-SP, cidade que depende da água subterrânea para o abastecimento público. A aula apoiou-se em manipulação de amostras de rochas e buscou-se identificar as idéias prévias e discutir as dificuldades cognitivas no processo de aprendizagem das noções de porosidade e a permeabilidade. Percebeu-se que a natureza oculta do reservatório subterrâneo do ciclo da água favorece a manifestação de idéias não científicas para explicar os intercâmbios da água desse reservatório em relação aos demais. Apesar de perceberem a infiltração em rochas porosas, os alunos criam interpretações próprias ao relatarem como a água fica armazenada no interior da rocha. A noção mais comum apresentada pelos alunos corresponde em relacionar a rocha a uma esponja. Esse modo de pensar mostrou correlação com pesquisas que serviram de base para este estudo, e mostram a necessidade de uma melhor formação (tanto inicial quanto continuada) de professores. Embora entender o ciclo da água e o comportamento da água subterrânea tenha importância social, econômica e cultural para nossa sociedade, pouca atenção é dada ao assunto no Ensino Básico. / Abstract: The water cycle is very important. However, the way textbooks for primary and secondary school have been presenting this theme, doesn't contribute to make rise a scientific idea. To face that problem, in order to work the fragmented vision exposed in Geography and Science textbooks, we developed differentiated scholar activities that helped us investigate how 11-12 years old students interpretate phenomena related to underground water. We analyze one class realized in a public school at the city of Ribeirão Preto-SP (this town depends on underground water for public water supply). This class was based on the student's manipulation of rock samples, through wich we tried to map their previous ideas and discuss their cognitive difficulties at learning the concepts of porosity and permeability. We found that the "hidden" property of the underground water benefits the appearance of non-scientific ideas to explain the water trades in this kind of reservoir. Despite the fact that they realize infiltration in porous rocks, the students create their own interpretation when reporting how water gets stored within the rock. Student's most common explanation for that is to relate the rock to a sponge. This way of thinking is related to other researches about the theme and points to the necessity of a better qualification (initial or late education) of teachers. Although the comprehension of water cycle and the paths of underground water is considered important socially, economically and culturally in our society, in primary and secondary schools, short attention have been dismissed to this subject. / Mestrado / Mestre em Ensino e Historia de Ciencias da Terra

Made available in DSpace on 2014-07-29T15:12:46Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao Elias D Saba.pdf: 1820237 bytes, checksum: 4d908182a2c254ba99bba4d3764bac06 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-12-15 / This study evaluated the impact of necroleachate in the groundwater aquifer of some cemeteries located in towns around the federal district of Brasilia between 2007 and 2011. Cemeteries in Braslândia, Plano Piloto, Taguatinga, Gama, Sobradinho and Planaltina, located in the federal district, were studied including the Jardim Metropolitano (cemetery and crematorium) in Val Paraíso, Goias. Analysis of physico-chemical and microbiological parameters of underground water samples taken from monitored wells were carried out. The alkalinity, pH value, organic oxygen, conductivity, color, hardness, turbidity, iron content, total quantity of dissolved solid and the chemical and biological oxygen demand of a total of 342 samples were monitored. The result showed that the median values of the physico-chemical parameter obtained are within the range of those permitted by the law. However, it was observed that there was a sharp increase in the median concentration of organic oxygen parameters and the biological and chemical oxygen demand between 2007 and 2011. The results were be evaluated using the RDA (Redundancy analysis) model from the CANOCO software which does a canonical ordination and Redundancy analysis, serving as a chemical tool. The Redundancy analysis allowed for the identification of collection areas with the greatest amount of physico-chemical parameters, thereby allowing for separation and classification of water samples. It also became possible to correlate the physico-chemical and microbiological results and identify areas more prone to contamination, hereby ascertaining the influence of these factors in modifying the potability of Aquifers, however within established standard parameters. / O presente trabalho avaliou o impacto do necrochorume nos aquíferos freáticos de alguns cemitérios localizados no entorno de Brasília, Distrito Federal, no período de 2007 a 2011. Foram estudados os cemitérios de Braslândia, Plano Piloto, Taguatinga, Gama, Sobradinho e Planaltina, localizados no Distrito Federal, e Jardim Metropolitano (Cemitério e Crematório) de Valparaiso, em Goiás. Análises dos parâmetros físico químicos e microbiológicos das águas subterrâneas foram realizadas para as amostras coletadas em poços de monitoramento. Foram monitorados os parâmetros alcalinidade, pH, oxigênio orgânico, condutividade, cor, dureza, turbidez, teor de ferro, sólidos totais dissolvidos, demanda química de oxigênio e demanda biológica de oxigênio para um total de 342 amostras. De acordo com os resultados obtidos, os valores medianos dos parâmetros físico químicos não se encontram acima do permitido pela legislação. No entanto, foi possível observar que houve um aumento acentuado nas concentrações medianas dos parâmetros, oxigênio orgânico, demanda biológica oxigênio e demanda quimica de oxigênio no decorrer dos anos de 2007 a 2011. Para avaliar os resultados, propondo a utilização do modelo RDA (Análise de Redundância) de resposta do software CANOCO que faz uma ordenação canônica, uma análise de redundância, como ferramenta na química. E a Análise de Redundância permitiu identificar os parâmetros físico químicos de maior abundância nos locais de coleta, permitindo diferenciar e classificar as amostras de água, foi possível correlacionar os resultados físico químicos e microbiológicos e identificar os locais mais propícios a contaminação, concluindo que houve influencia desses fatores, na modificação dos índices de potabilidade dos aqüíferos, porém dentro dos parâmetros normativos estabelecidos.

A sociedade contemporânea cria riscos de todas as ordens, ampliando o significado desse conceito. O risco pode estar associado à ameaças naturais, mas cada vez mais está relacionado à ações humanas, em especial devido ao uso de tecnologias. O uso do solo, tanto para fins agrícolas quanto urbanos, gera possibilidades de contaminação de áreas sensíveis, como é o caso da área de recarga do aqüífero Guarani, em Ribeirão Preto, no Estado de São Paulo, Brasil. Este trabalho objetivou realizar um estudo crítico de como a legislação aplicável às águas subterrâneas tratou a proteção das áreas de recarga do Aqüífero Guarani, frente aos riscos identificados pela literatura no município de Ribeirão Preto. A metodologia empregada foi a análise documental e a realização de entrevistas com os atores envolvidos na gestão desse recurso. Esse município é um dos mais importantes do Estado, além de elevado desenvolvimento econômico, destaca-se por estar situado junto à área de recarga do principal reservatório de água subterrânea do Cone Sul, bem como ter sido alvo de vários projetos para a proteção desse manancial subterrâneo, com destaque ao Projeto Aqüífero Guarani.A formulação de uma política de proteção para as áreas de recarga encerra o desafio de conciliar a gestão dos recursos hídricos com as políticas de uso e ocupação do solo e ambiental. A Política Nacional de Recursos Hídricos tratou o tema de maneira superficial. O Estado de São Paulo, apesar de seu pioneirismo normativo, não conseguiu moldar uma política eficaz. A possibilidade de criar Áreas de Proteção Máxima nas zonas de recarga dos aqüíferos é elogiável, porém as lacunas legais existentes inviabilizam a aplicação prática desse instrumento. No âmbito municipal percebeu-se a priorização dos interesses dos principais setores econômicos em detrimento da proteção dessas áreas. A multidiversidade dos riscos, a ausência de uma política federal que estabeleça diretrizes para as políticas estaduais de recursos hídricos subterrâneos, bem como a falta de integração e articulação entre os diversos órgãos e atores que tratam do tema prejudicou a implantação e aplicação de uma política eficaz para as águas subterrâneas. A proteção das áreas de recarga acaba ocorrendo de forma indireta, via os instrumentos da política ambiental, não porque estes as tenham como objeto, mas como um desdobramento natural da proteção ao meio ambiente. / The contemporary society has created many kinds of risks, enlarging the meaning of this concept. It can be associated to natural disasters, but more and more it is related to human actions, especially because technology use. When soil is used to agricultural or urbane proposes, it creates condition for contamination of sensible areas, such as the Guarani Aquifers recharge area at Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo State, Brazil. This research aimed to analyze how the current subterranean water legislation works in order to protect Guarani Aquifers recharge area, considering risks identified by literature in Ribeirão Preto City. Data were collected by documental analysis and interviews that were conducted to key actors. Ribeirão Preto is considered one of the most important cities of São Paulo State. Its economy is highly developed and it is located in the recharge area of Guarani Aquifer. In addition, the city has been target by many projects of preservation, such as Guarani Aquifer Project. In order to create effective protection policy, the challenge consists of conciliating the hydric resources management with soil and environment policy. The National Water Policy has been leaded with this subject in a very superficial way. Even though São Paulo State has been pioneer in a normative way, it has not been able to create an efficient regulation. The possibility of establishing Maximum Protection Areas in the recharge zones is appreciable, but inconsistent laws create obstacles that interrupt a real application of this instrument. In the municipally level, the priority is the interest of powerful economy sectors instead of the recharge areas protection. The implementation and application of an efficient subterranean water policy is prejudiced by risks diversity, lack of a national policy that indicates directives to the state policy, and lack of integration and articulation among various involved sectors and actors. Recharge areas protection have been realized as an indirect way through environmental instruments. These instruments are not specific, but they reach the recharge areas as a natural consequence of the environmental protection.

Groundwater is a major and sometimes lone source of drinking water worldwide. The chemical composition of groundwater is a combined product of the composition of water that enters the aquifer and its reaction with various minerals present in the soil and rock mass, which alter the water composition with time and space. Some important factors influencing groundwater quality are (1) physiochemical characteristics o the rocks through which the water circulates; (2) geology of the location; (3) climate of the area; (4) role of microorganisms, which includes oxidative and reductive biodegradation of organic matter; (5)chemical, physical, and mineralogical characteristics of the overburden soils through which the rainwater percolates; and (6) human intrusion affecting the hydrological cycle and degradation in water quality through utilization of water for agricultural and industrial activities. By far the most serious naturally occurring groundwater-quality problem in India derives from high fluoride, arsenic and iron concentrations which are dissolved from the bedrocks by geochemical processes. Presence of excess fluoride in groundwater is identified as a naturally occurring health hazard by the World Health Organization (WHO). Prolonged ingestion of fluoride beyond certain permissible limit leads to ffluorosis, one of the common water-related diseases recognized by the WHO and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). Endemic fluorosis is now known to be global in scope, occurring on all continents and affecting many millions of people. According to estimates made in the early 1980s, around 260 million people in 30 countries worldwide were drinking water with more than 1 ppm of fluoride. The ultimate source of fluoride in water, soil or biosphere is associated with its distribution in rocks and its dispersion in groundwater. The three most important minerals of fluoride are fluorite (CaF2), cryolite (Na3AlF6) and fluorapatite (Ca5(PO4)3F); cryolite is a rare mineral where as by far the largest amount of fluorine in the earth's crust is in the form of fluorapatite (about 3.5% by weight of fluorine) which is processed almost exclusively for its phosphate content. Fluoride substitutes readily in hydroxyl positions in late-formed minerals in igneous rocks, and in primary minerals especially micas (such as biotites) and amphiboles (such as hornblende). The most important controlling factors influencing fluoride presence in groundwater include: distribution of easily weathered fluoride-bearing minerals, the accessibility of circulating water to these minerals, pH of the percolating water, calcium content of the leaching water, temperature of the percolating water and the soil, exchangeable ions in the percolating water, extent of fresh water exchange in an aquifer, evaporation and evapotranspiration, complexing of fluoride ions with other ions, presence of CO2 and other chemicals in draining water and residence time of the percolating water in soil. High fluoride levels are observed in the groundwater in 19 states of the country. Fluorite, apatite, rock phosphate, phosphorites, phosphatic nodules and topaz are major fluoride bearing minerals in India with varying levels of fluoride content. There are three major fluoride bearing areas in India :1) Gujarat-Rajasthan in the north-west and 2) Chandidongri-Raipur in central India 3) Tamil Nadu-Andhra Pradesh in the south; besides other areas in Karnataka, Bihar, Punjab and in the North-west Himalayas. The total mineral reserves of fluorite, rock phosphate and apatite in the country are estimated at 11.6, 71 and 2.82 million tonnes respectively. The distribution of areas with excess fluoride in groundwater concurs with that of fluorine-bearing minerals. Further high fluoride concentrations are observed from arid and semi arid regions of the country and the areas with advanced stage of groundwater development. An estimated 62 million people, including 6 million children suffer from fluorosis in India because of consuming fluoride-contaminated water. Endemic fluorosis is found to practically exist only in the villages due to lack of piped water supply. The Indian Drinking Water Standard specifies the desirable and permissible limits for fluoride in drinking water as 1.0 and 1.5ppm respectively. De-fluoridation of groundwater is the only alternative to prevent fluorosis in the absence of alternate water source especially for immediate and/or interim relief. De-fluoridation of drinking water in India is usually achieved by the Nalgonda technique or activated alumina process. The Nalgonda method involves addition of aluminum salts (aluminium sulphate and/or aluminium chloride), lime and bleaching powder to water, followed by rapid mixing, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfection. Only aluminum salt is responsible for removal of fluoride from water .Fluoride removal is achieved in a combination of complexation with polyhydroxy aluminium species and adsorption on polymeric alumino hydroxides (floc). Activated alumina(Al2O3) was proposed for de-fluoridation of water for domestic use in 1930’s and since then it has become one of the most advocated de-fluoridation methods. Activated alumina is a semi crystalline porous inorganic adsorbent and an excellent medium for fluoride removal. When the source water passes through the packed column of activated alumina, fluoride (and other components in the water) is removed via exchange reaction with surface hydroxides on alumina; this mechanism is generally called adsorption although ligand exchange is a more appropriate term for the highly specific surface reactions involved. The fluoride removal capacity of alumina is highly sensitive to pH, the optimum being about pH5.5-6. Significant reduction in fluoride removal by activated alumina is also observed in presence of sulfate and silicate ions. The column needs periodic regeneration once break point(where the effluent concentration is, for example, 2ppm at normal saturation) is reached. For regeneration, the medium is backwashed for 5-10 min and then subjected to two step regeneration with base (NaOH) followed by acid(H2SO4). A major cause for concern with the Nalgonda method is the possibility of formation of residual aluminum and soluble aluminum fluoride complexes in the treated water and a potential breach of the 0.2ppm Indian drinking water standard for aluminium. Concerns with the activated alumina filter method are that the process is pH dependent, with an optimum (pH) working range of 5-6. Further, the activated alumina column requires periodic recharge using caustic soda and acid solutions to rejuvenate the fluoride retention capacity of the column. After 3-4 regenerations the medium has to be replaced. If the pH is not readjusted to normal following the regeneration process, there is a possibility that the aluminum concentration in the treated water may exceed the 0.2ppm standard. Due to the aforementioned drawbacks of the currentde-fluoridation technologies in India that chiefly rely on aluminum based compounds, magnesia(magnesium oxide, MgO) is selected to develop an alternate sustainable de-fluoridation method. The potential of MgO for de-fluoridation has been examined owing to its very limited solubility(6.2mg/L), non-toxicity and excellent fluoride retention capacity. A review of the previous studies on fluoride removal using MgO reveals that the relevant information is essentially scattered. Though studies demonstrated the fluoride removing ability of MgO and brought into focus certain aspects of the fluoride removal mechanism and change in water quality upon MgO addition, vital issues necessary for efficient design and successful field implementation of the de-fluoridation processusing MgO were not addressed. The significant limitations in the earlier works include: influence of process variables(such as MgO dosage, initial fluoride concentration, contact time, temperature, initial solution pH, presence of co-ions and ionic strength) on fluoride retention characteristics (such as removal rate, equilibrium time, capacity) of MgO were not systematically determined, optimum operating parameters/conditions (such as MgO dosage, stirring and settling time) for effective de-fluoridation process applicable to a wide range of groundwater chemical composition and fluoride concentrations were not defined, mechanism of fluoride retention by MgO was not fully understood, issue of lowering the pH of MgO treated water within potable water limits was not comprehensively addressed, safe disposal methods of fluoride bearing sludge were not explored. Failure to address the above issues has impeded the adoption of the MgO treatment method for fluoride removal from water. Scope of the study Present study aims to develop a new sustainable de-fluoridation method, applicable to a wide range of groundwater chemical compositions and fluoride concentrations, based on co-precipitation/precipitation-sedimentation-filtration processes using light MgO. Efforts are made to implement the method at domestic level in a rural area with incidence of high fluoride concentration in groundwater and to understand the status and geochemistry of fluoride contamination in the area. The main objectives of the study include: To determine the fluoride retention characteristics of MgO viz.,rate, equilibrium time and capacity of fluoride retention. To examine the influence of process variables on fluoride retention characteristics of MgO and to determine the optimum operating parameters for effective de-fluoridation process. To understand the mechanism and rate limiting step of MgO de-fluoridation process. To propose methods and specifications to lower the pH of MgO treated water within permissible limits to ensure its potability. To design a simple to use, single-stage domestic de-fluoridation unit. To propose procedures for implementation of the new de-fluoridation method in field. To evaluate the efficiency of the new de-fluoridation method as a useful remedial measure in the fluoride affected areas. To understand the geochemical factors governing the quality of the fluoride rich groundwater and to ascertain the status and geochemistry of fluoride contamination in the area where felid implementation of de-fluoridation method is planned. To characterize the fluoride bearing sludge and propose methods for safe disposal and reuse of fluoride bearing sludge. Organization of the thesis Chapter1 presents an overview of the various aspects of excess fluoride presence in groundwater, remedial measures, and emphasizes the need for a new sustainable de-fluoridation method and defines the scope of present study. Chapter 2 performs a detailed investigation to determine the fluoride retention characteristics of MgO under the influence of various process variables at transient and equilibrium conditions using batch studies. The process variables that have been considered are, contact time, initial fluoride concentration, dosage of MgO, temperature, initial pH, presence of co-ions and ionic strength. Studies to determine the optimum operating parameters for efficient de-fluoridation and to understand some basics of reaction mechanisms involved are also part of this chapter. Chapter 3 examines the true nature of the reaction mechanism between fluoride ions and MgO in aqueous media and the rate-limiting step of the de-fluoridation process by investigating the hydration process of MgO and its influence/relation on fluoride removal. Chapter 4 addresses issues that will assist applying the MgO treatment method for fluoride removal in field such as 1)methods and specifications for lowering the pH of the MgO treated water within permissible limits, 2)design of a simple to use, single-stage de-fluoridation unit, and 3)characterization of the resultant fluoride bearing sludge. Chapter 5 performs a detailed investigation to evaluate the efficiency of the new de-fluoridation method in laboratory and field, and to understand the origin and the geochemicall mechanisms driving the groundwater fluorine enrichment in the area where field implementation of the de-fluoridation unit was planned. Chapter 6 explores an environmentally safe route for the disposal and re-use of fluoride bearing sludge in soil based building materials such as, stabilized soil blocks (produced by cement stabilization of densely compacted soil mass) which are alternative to burnt bricks. Chapter 7 summarizes the major results, observations and contributions from the study.