Vehicle-to-Anything (V2X) est un terme générique qui explique l'utilisation de batteries de véhicules électriques pour obtenir une valeur supplémentaire lors de périodes de non-utilisation. Les services V2X génèrent des revenus de la batterie grâce à la charge dynamique monodirectionnelle (V1X) ou bidirectionnelle (V2X) afin de fournir des avantages au réseau électrique, de réduire la consommation énergétique des bâtiments et des maisons ou de fournir une alimentation de secours aux charges. Une méta-analyse du potentiel économique donne des résultats contradictoires avec la littérature et indique que la gestion de la consommation électrique, l'adéquation des ressources et le report de l’investissement dans le réseau ont plus de valeur que d’arbitrage sur les marchés d’énergie et réserve secondaire. Bien que je convienne que le développement soit pour et par le marché, je souligne que V2X se développera dans les limites du contexte réglementaire; les régulateurs ont donc un rôle de catalyseur à jouer.Une question importante est de savoir dans quelle mesure une utilisation supplémentaire de la batterie du véhicule affectera la capacité de la batterie au cours de sa durée de vie. Il est donc essentiel de comprendre les subtilités de la dégradation de la batterie pour estimer les coûts. Les batteries Li-ion sont des systèmes électrochimiques compliqués qui présentent deux phénomènes de dégradation simultanés, le vieillissement calendaire et le vieillissement cyclique. Dans les applications véhiculaires, le vieillissement du calendrier a tendance à être l’effet dominant de dégradation de la durée de vie, ce qui réduit le temps, élément le plus important de la dégradation; par conséquent, le coût de la dégradation dépend fondamentalement du temps.Une affirmation centrale de cette thèse est que le coût marginal de V2X n’est ni nul ni négligeable comme l’a accepté la littérature économique, mais dépend fortement de la dégradation de la batterie. Nous proposons ici une théorie des coûts marginaux V2X qui repose sur deux principes: 1.) il existe un coût d’efficacité associé au chargement de la batterie, et 2.) le véritable coût de dégradation de V2X prend en compte le coût d’opportunité, c’est-à-dire, la dégradation au-delà de ce qu’aurait été l’utilisation normale du véhicule.Avoir un concept clair du coût marginal de V2X, permet de comptabiliser et d’équilibrer correctement tous les coûts réels: coût de l’électricité, coûts d’efficacité du système et dégradation de la batterie. Cela permettra d’élaborer des stratégies de charge optimales et d’informer correctement les offres du marché de l’énergie. Il en résulte une compréhension plus nuancée des coûts marginaux. L’impact de la batterie V2X sur la vie de la batterie pourrait être considéré comme un coût, un bénéfice ou nul. Je conclus que le V2X peut offrir une valeur économique supérieure à celle précédemment entendue et que cette valeur supplémentaire sera réalisée grâce à l'amélioration simultanée de l'efficacité de la charge et de la réduction de la dégradation de la batterie EV. / Vehicle-to-Anything (V2X) is an umbrella term to explain the use of electric vehicle batteries to derive additional value during times of non-use. V2X services generate revenue from the battery asset through dynamic mono-directional (V1X) or bi-directional (V2X) charging to provide benefits to the electric grid, to reduce energy consumption of buildings and homes, or to provide back-up power to loads. A meta-analysis of economic potential gives results contradictory to the literature and indicates that Bill Management, Resource Adequacy, and Network Deferral are more valuable than Energy Arbitrage and Spinning Reserves. While I concur that development is of and by the market, I emphasize that V2X will develop within the constraints of the regulatory environment; therefore regulators have an enabling role to play.An important question is to what extent additional use of the vehicle battery will affect battery capacity over its lifetime, therefore understanding the intricacies of battery degradation is crucial to estimate costs. Li-ion batteries are complicated electrochemical systems which exhibit two concurrent degradation phenomena, Calendar Aging and Cycling Aging. In vehicular applications, Calendar Aging tends to be the dominating life degradation effect, which reduces to time being the most important component of degradation; therefore degradation cost is fundamentally time-dependent.A central claim of this dissertation is that gls{v2x} Marginal Cost is not zero nor negligible as the economic literature has accepted but is highly dependent on battery degradation. Herein, a gls{v2x} Marginal Cost Theory is proposed which is based on two main principles: 1.) there is an efficiency cost associated with charge operation, and 2.) the true gls{v2x} degradation cost takes opportunity cost into account, that is, only considers degradation beyond what would have been experienced by operating the vehicle normally.Having a clear concept of gls{v2x} Marginal Cost which can properly account for and balance all true costs: the cost of electricity, the system-efficiency costs, and battery degradation, will allow for development of optimal charge strategies and will properly inform energy market bids. This results in a more nuanced understanding of marginal costs as the resultant battery lifetime impact from gls{v2x} can be either be considered a cost, a benefit, or zero. I conclude that gls{v2x} may offer greater economic value than previously understood and that this additional value will be realized through the simultaneous improvement in charge efficiency and reduction of gls{ev} battery degradation.

A transition phase is taking place in Sweden, where the goal is to become a completely climate neutral country by 2045. The transport sector currently accounts for a third of fossil emissions in Sweden, while the transport sector also has the greatest potential to become fossil-free through, forexample, a comprehensive electrification. Bottlenecks in the grid is a challenge that Sweden faces where the existing ability to send powerthrough the country is already highly utilized. Battery storage can partly be the solution to this problem and also support the future needs that a further electrification of the transport sector may cause. Battery storage can, however, be both expensive and require a lot of space. To avoid this, the mobile battery storage that is available in electric cars can be used to convey power to the grid based on need. The technology that performs this bidirectional charging is called V2G (vehicle-to-grid) and has enormous theoretical potential. The number of electric cars in Sweden has increased by 82% duringthe year 2020, which provides good conditions for continuing to investigate the potential for V2G. Previous studies have shown challenges with the technology. The main issues pointed out have been profitability, winter conditions and battery wear, all of which are taken into account in this study. As in all of Sweden, Halmstad needs to plan for its electrification of the transport sector and load consequences on the grid. This study carries out a combined qualitative and quantitative case study that examines how a future electric car fleet can affect Halmstad's local grid. With data from HEM Nät from a winter week that will correspond to extreme conditions for the grid, a model has been developed in Excel to test different proposed scenarios. What is analyzed is how V2G can work in practice depending on where and when charging takes place, and whether power regulation can be profitable for both private individuals and network operator. Results show that some form of power regulation will be needed in the future to deal with the consequences of uncontrolled electric car charging with an ever-larger electric car fleet, and that V2G may be an option. Despite the winter climate and consideration for battery wear, a significant power peak reduction can be achieved if sufficient participation is attained and a good control strategy is found. Financial analysis shows a negative outcome for private individuals who use V2G. The utility services that is provided can on the other hand reduce costs for the network operator through load balancing incentives and reduced subscriptions to overlying networks. This in turn can enable an interest in network operators to introduce local incentives for private individuals' involvement.

Electric vehicles (EV) in the transportation sector will play a major role in achieving low-carbon emissions from the mobility of vehicles. With a future increase in electric vehicles and autonomous electric vehicles, the demand for charging increases and this comes with new problems that require modern solutions. The integrity of the power grid infrastructure can be at risk as grid congestion and power mismatch can cause problems as the act of charging the vehicles adds an extra burden on the power grid. Today, there exist several scenarios on how a vehicle can be charged and a number of technical solutions that are advantageous based on different aspects such as user's need, price of the electricity, and electricity network.   This thesis focuses on identifying different charging scenarios in mapping the information that is required and studying the effects of these charging scenarios through a smart charging algorithm. A smart charging algorithm to optimise for charging and discharging of the electric vehicle is developed and tested in a MATLAB environment with the aim to achieve a balanced grid load profile. The simulation results verify the potential of the algorithm to reduce the adverse effects of electric vehicle charging. Additionally, a model to map autonomous electric vehicles to charging station in accounts of a low state of charge is also developed in MATLAB

The aim of this report is to evaluate how a future commercially owned fleet of self-driving electric vehicles (EV:s) would be able to provide power in order to avoid power exceedances in the power grid. Exceedances occur when network agreements between grid operating companies are exceeded. Exceedances are problematic, since they infer penalty fees for the paying company and make dimensioning the grid capacity more difficult for the supplying company. Capacity deficiency regarding the infrastructure of the grid is expected to increase, likely resulting in higher penalty fees. Integrating transport and power systems by using self-driving EV:s as Mobility as a Service combined with Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology is a potential solution for this problem. By modeling the EV-fleet as the New York City taxi fleet, a usage pattern deemed to resemble Mobility as a Service is created. An economic value for the V2G service is estimated by comparing the availability of the EV-fleet with local exceedances from Uppsala as well as regional occurring exceedances. The highest income during the first quarter of 2019 is 96 000 SEK for the whole fleet, or 1100 SEK per EV and hour-long exceedance. The time of exceedance and the power magnitude have to interplay with the availability of the EV-fleet in order to enable the system. The EV battery capacity highly impacts the system, but is concluded to not be a limiting factor due to market logic. Lastly, key features such as market formation as well as geographical and technical aspects are presented and discussed.

Transportation and energy play an essential role in modern society. Since the Industrial Revolution, fossil fuels have enabled great advancements in human society. Within this process, Internal Combustion Engines Vehicles (ICEVs) played a significant role in guaranteeing reliable and affordable long-distance transportation. However, the subsequent increase of the Motorized Private Transport resulted in undesired effects such as pollution. One instrument in reducing the Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions of the transport sector is to shift from the conventional ICEVs toward zero local emission vehicles. Electric Vehicles (EVs) are being promoted worldwide as a suitable powertrain technology that could replace the ICEVs. However, unless combined with electricity from renewable generation technologies the EVs will not effectively reduce GHG emissions. Through the simulation of future transport and energy sector scenarios in Germany, the GHG emission reductions have been analyzed. Techno-economic and environmental characteristics for several powertrain technologies under several vehicles charging strategies are evaluated. The thesis explores the impact of charging EVs on the electrical grid. The result show that EVs using smart charging strategies that support Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) are capable of fulfilling mobility needs of users while providing substantial flexibility to the electrical grid. Such flexibility can facilitate the future expansion of non-dispatchable Renewable Energy Sources (RES).

To charge an all types of Electric Vehicles (EVs) is the most primary part of the electrical vehicle industry. Nowadays charging communication between vehicle and charging station becoming more and more popular. Automotive industries are trying to charge vehicles in minimal time and also the secured one. In the charging communication scenario, current is flowing through the charging station to the EV through electric line and normally communication between them takes place with the help of Controller Area Network (CAN), Wi-Fi and Powerline Communication (PLC) etc. There are two types of charging communication available in the current industry: High level and Low level communication for Alternating Current (AC) and Direct Current (DC). Low Level Communication (LLC) uses only Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) signals to transmit data, which is analog signals. On the other hand, High level Communication (HLC) provides digital and IP network based communication. These both types also support many different standards for communication. For example, ISO 15118, IEC 61851, DIN 70121 and many more. These standards have the message sequences for the flow of charging and also their implementation. The goal of this thesis is the development of low cost EVSE test system, which has the PLC technology with up to 10 Mbps data rate and two different standards for charging communication with HLC. This thesis proposes an implementation between a communication controller or SECC of Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE) side and Signal Level Attenuation Characterization (SLAC) in PLC modem. SLAC functionality helps to overcome the problem of crosstalk while charging. In this work, there will be a test system with SECC and PWM generator, some resistors to identify proper lock mechanism between charging cable and vehicle inlet, the ISO 15118 and IEC 61851 for PWM signals. Implementation of SECC will be in JAVA language and each message executed in XML script language. Our examination shows this approach very remarkable low cost AC based test system with digital communication system, which can help to test direct or virtual EV or HiL system.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / With the rapid growth of technology, scientists are trying to find ways to make the world a more efficient and eco-friendly place. The research and development of electric vehicles suddenly boomed since natural resource are becoming very scarce. The significance of an electric vehicle goes beyond using free energy, it is environ- mental friendly. The objective of this thesis is to understand what Vehicle to Grid Communication (V2G) for an electric vehicle is, and to implement a model of this highly efficient system into a Hybrid Petri Net. This thesis proposes a Hybrid Petri net modeling of Vehicle to Grid (V2G) Communication topology. Initially, discrete, continuous, and hybrid Petri net's are defined, familiarized, and exemplified. Secondly, the Vehicle and Grid side of the V2G communication system is introduced in detail. The modeling of individual Petri nets, as well as their combination is discussed thoroughly. Thirdly, in order to prove these systems, simulation and programming is used to validate the theoretical studies. A Matlab embedded simulation program known as SimHPN is used to simulate specific scenario's in the system, which uses Depth-first Search (DFS) Algorithm. In addition to SimHPN simulation program, Matlab program is made to output four levels of the reachability tree as well as specifying duplicate and terminate nodes. This code incorporates a technique known as Breadth-first Search (BFS) Algorithm.

The functionality to both charge and discharge energy from and to the power grid to a Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) is referred to as Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G). This allows the customer to buy energy when the spot price is low and sell energy when the price is high to make a profit, called energy arbitrage. However, when the battery is charging, discharging, or idling for storage, battery degradation occurs due to chemical properties and reactions. This thesis developed a mathematical optimisation model in Python, using the modelling language Pyomo. Mathematical equations are used to integrate energy arbitrage and degradation data to reduce the total cost in terms of degradation and energy by finding an optimised charge and discharge pattern. The model allows different user scenarios to be analysed by changing inputs such as charger power, battery cost or daily driving distance. When using V2G technology, the State-of-Charge (SoC) level of BEVs battery packs can be adjusted to find SoC levels which minimise the battery degradation, while allowing the user to make a profit from energy arbitrage. The result shows that the V2G charging protocol, compared to protocols without a bidirectional charger could be beneficial for the simulated time periods, by both reducing degradation and the total energy cost. The results also indicate that the degradation cost of the battery is often the determining factor in the decision of when to charge or discharge, i.e., the substantial cost-saving strategy is to control the storage and cycle degradation to reduce the total degradation, rather than controlling the energy arbitrage. The model and the result of this thesis can be used by car manufacturers to learn more about how battery cell types behave in V2G mode and influence further work on V2G control.

The recent increase of electric cars adoption will inuence the electricity demand in the distributionnetworks which risks to be higher than the maximum power available in the grid, if not well planned. Forthis reason, it is on the DSOs and TSOs's interest to plan carefully coordinated charging of a bulk of EVsas well as assess the possibility of EVs acting as energy storages with the Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) or Vehicleto-Building (V2B) capability. When parked and plugged into the electric grid, EVs will absorb energy andstore it, being also able to deliver electricity back to the grid/building (V2G/B system).This can be anoptimized process, performed by an aggregator, gathering multiple EVs that discharge the battery into thegrid at peak time and charge when there is low demand i.e. overnight and o-peak hours.Numerous studies have investigated the possibility of aggregating multiple EVs and optimizing theircharging and discharging schedules for peak load reduction or energy arbitrage with participation in theelectricity market. However, no study was found for optimizing a shared eet of EVs with daily reservationsfor dierent users trying to perform V2B. In this study an optimization modelling algorithm (mixed integerlinear problem - MILP) that manages the possible reservations of the shared eet of EVs, coordinates thecharging and discharging schedules, and provides V2B (Vehicle-to-Building), with the objective of minimizingenergy costs and accounting with battery ageing has been developed. A case study with real data for abuilding is carried out modelling dierent number of EVs for two dierent days in year 2017, one in Marchand other in June.Results show that the prots are higher for all cases when introducing V2B as compared to a no optimizationscenario: V2B with battery degradation (50 ore/kWh) has decreased daily variable electricity costsbetween 54 and 59% in March and 60 and 63% for June when compared without smart charging. Integrationof battery degradation cost in V2B applications is necessary and inuences signicantly the chargingand discharging strategies adopted by EV and nally the total daily costs: The total daily cost increaseby maximal 10% for the day in March and 13% for the day in June when comparing the scenario that hasstationary battery and uses only-charging model for EVs with the scenario applying V2B mode consideringa degradation cost of 80 ore/kWh. / Ö kningen av antalet elbilar kommer att påverka lasten i elnätet som riskerar att bli högre än kapacitetom det inte är väl planerat. Därför är det i elnätsföretags intresse att samordna laddningen av de flesta elbilarna samt att utvärdera möjligheterna att använda elbilar som energilager gentemot elnätet (Vehicleto-Grid,V2G) eller byggnader (Vehicle-to-Building, V2B). Vid parkering och anslutning till elnätet kommer elbilar att ladda energi och lagra den, samtidigt de kan leverera el tillbaka till elnätet eller byggnaden (V2G/V2B). Detta kan vara en optimerad process som utförs av en aggregator genom att ladda flera elbilar i låglasttimmar och ladda ur dem under höglasttimmar.Många studier har undersökt möjligheten att aggregera flera elbilar och optimera laddningsoch urladdningsplaner för topplastreduktion eller energiarbitrage på elmarknaden. Ingen studie har dock hittats för att optimera en gemensam flotta av elbilar med dagliga reservationer för olika användare som försöker utföra V2B. Denna studie har utvecklat en optimeringsmodell (blandad heltalsprogrammering MILP) som hanterar möjliga reservationer av en flotta av elbilar, koordinerar laddning och urladdning planering, och utför V2B för att minimera energikostnader med hänsyn till batteriets åldrande. En fallstudie för en byggnad genomfördes modellering av olika antal elbilar för två dagar 2017, en i mars och andra i juni.Resultaten visar att vinsten är högre i samtliga fall då man introducerar V2B jämfört med scenario utan optimering: V2B med batteriladdningskostnad 50 öre/kWh minskade dagliga rörliga elkostnader mellan 54% och 59% i mars och mellan 60% och 63% i juni jämfört med utan smart laddning. Att inkludera batteriladdningskostnaden i V2B-applikationer är nödvändigt och har en signifikant inverkan på laddningsstrategierna och de totala kostnaderna: De totala dagliga kostnaderna ökar med upp till 10% i mars och upp till 13% i juni då man jämför scenariot att bara ladda elbilar och ha stationärt batteri med scenariot V2B med hänsyntill batteriladdningskostnad 80 öre/kWh.

In the countries willing to follow an energy transition towards decarbonization, a strong emphasis is put on electrification. Carbon-free power production tends to rely more on intermittent renewable energies, bringing many uncertainties on the electricity output to the grid. The transportation sector aims to reach a high penetration of electric vehicles (EVs) on the road to overcome its fossil fuels dependency, adding an important load to charge their batteries. The V2G technology intends to alleviate these new issues by allowing the fleet of EVs to act like a storage system for the grid. This concept was proven to be mature but requires more pilot projects to build a greater consensus. The energy community BRF Stenberg, under construction in Hudiksvall, is willing to integrate V2G in its energy system. In this paper a model of the energy system for the whole community is built. Different types of V2G application are simulated and compared to a baseline. The constraints are formulated as a quasi-linear optimisation, where the cost from electricity purchase is minimized. A direct DCDC connection between PV production and EV charging is investigated, as well as the impact on the degradation of the batteries. The results show that it is necessary to integrate frequency regulation services to build a profitable project. The DC connection does not bring a significant benefit to the system. The battery degradation is proven to be a critical parameter that must be accounted for in the design of the system. / I de länder som är villiga att följa en energiomställning mot en koldioxidfri utveckling läggs stor vikt vid elektrifiering. Kolfri elproduktion tenderar att vara mer beroende av intermittenta förnybara energikällor, vilket medför många osäkerhetsfaktorer i fråga om elproduktionen till elnätet. Transportsektorn strävar efter att uppnå en hög penetration av elfordon på vägarna för att övervinna sitt beroende av fossila bränslen, vilket ger en viktig belastning för att ladda deras batterier. V2G-tekniken syftar till att lindra dessa nya problem genom att låta fordonsflottan fungera som ett lagringssystem för nätet. Konceptet har visat sig vara moget men kräver fler pilotprojekt för att skapa ett större samförstånd. Energisamfälligheten BRF Stenberg, som håller på att byggas i Hudiksvall, är villigt att integrera V2G i sitt energisystem. I den här artikeln byggs en modell av energisystemet för hela Energisamfälligheten. Olika grader av V2G-tillämpning simuleras och jämförs med en baslinje. Begränsningarna formuleras som en kvasilinjär optimering, där kostnaden för elinköp minimeras. En direkt DC-DC-anslutning mellan solcellsproduktion och fordonsladdning undersöks, liksom effekten på batteriernas nedbrytning. Resultaten visar att det är nödvändigt att integrera frekvensregleringstjänster för att bygga ett lönsamt projekt. Likströmsförbindelsen ger inte någon betydande fördel för systemet. Batteridegraderingen visar sig vara en kritisk parameter som måste beaktas vid utformningen av systemet.