Very little information is known about the impact electrification has on driving behavior, or how drivers charge their electrified vehicles. The recent influx of electrified vehicles presents a new market of vehicles which allow drivers the option between electrical or conventional gasoline energy sources. The current battery capacity in full battery electric vehicles requires planning of routes not required of conventional vehicles, due to the limited range, extended charging times, and limited charging infrastructure. There is currently little information on how drivers react to these limitations. A number of current models of fully electric and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, transmit data wirelessly on key-on, key-off, and charging events. The data includes battery state of charge, distance of miles driven on gasoline and electric, energy consumed, and many other parameters associated to driving and charging behavior. In this thesis, this data was then processed and analyzed to benchmark the performance and characteristics of driving and charging patterns. Vehicles were analyzed and contrasted based on model type, geographic location, length of ownership and other variables. This data was able to show benchmarks and parameters in aggregate for 56 weeks of electrified vehicle tracking. These parameters were compared to the EV Project, a large scale electrified vehicle study performed by Idaho National Labs, to confirm patterns of expected behavior. New parameters which were not present in the EV Project were analyzed and provided insight to charging and driving behavior not examined in any previous study on a large scale. This study provides benchmarks and conclusions on this new driving behavior, such as large scale analysis of brake regeneration performance and degradation of range anxiety. Analysis of the differences on charging and driving behavior between geographic regions and experience were examined, providing insight to how these variables affect performance and driving and charging patterns. Comparison of parameters established by the EV Project and new parameters analyzed in this report will help build a benchmark for future studies of electrified vehicles.

Range anxiety is a relatively new concept which is defined as the fear of running out of power when driving an electric vehicle. To decrease range anxiety you can increase the battery size or decrease the minimum state of charge, the least amount of power that can be left in the battery, or to expand the available fast charging infrastructure. But is that economical feasible or even technically possible in today’s society? In this project we have used a theoretical model for estimating range anxiety and have simulated the average electricity consumption using two different kinds of electric vehicles, to see how often they reach range anxiety according to a specific definition of range anxiety implemented in this model. The simulations were performed for different scenarios in order to evaluate the effect of different parameters on range anxiety. The result that we got were that range anxiety can be decreased with bigger batteries but to get range anxiety just a few times a year you have to use battery sizes which aren’t economical feasible today. Despite the shortcomings of todays electric vehicles there are promising new and future technologies such as better batteries which might help alleviate range anxiety for electric vehicle owner. The conclusion from this study is that in the present fleet of electric vehicles is in need of more charging stations and faster charging to get by the problem with range anxiety and having a chance to compete with gasoline and diesel vehicles.

Submitted by Marcelo Andrade Silva (marcelo.andradesilva@ufpe.br) on 2015-03-06T13:36:22Z No. of bitstreams: 2 dissertação fernanda pdf.pdf: 4185078 bytes, checksum: 51fab7d309f422168160be278eb84544 (MD5) license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-03-06T13:36:22Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 dissertação fernanda pdf.pdf: 4185078 bytes, checksum: 51fab7d309f422168160be278eb84544 (MD5) license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012 / Atualmente, a esquizofrenia se destaca por ser uma das doenças mentais mais graves que se tem conhecimento. As alterações na sensopercepção, como as alucinações visuais, estão entre seus sintomas mais característicos. Por exercer um papel fundamental no comportamento humano, a percepção tem sido alvo de diversas pesquisas, incluindo aquelas realizadas com pacientes esquizofrênicos. O presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar possíveis alterações na percepção visual de forma e tamanho em pacientes portadores de esquizofrenia utilizando como indicadores estímulos visuais complexos. O estudo contou com a participação de 67 voluntários, de ambos os sexos, que foram divididos em três grupos. O primeiro deles foi composto por 29 pacientes esquizofrênicos medicados internos do Hospital Portugal Ramalho, que compuseram o Grupo Experimental do Hospital (GEH). No segundo grupo participaram 16 pacientes esquizofrênicos medicados presentes nos CAPS Casa Verde e Maria Salete da Silva, que fizeram parte do Grupo Experimental dos CAPS (GEC). Já o Grupo Controle (GC) foi composto por 22 participantes que não possuíam histórico de transtornos psiquiátricos. Para o experimento foram utilizados 24 quadros de Salvador Dalí, 15 quadros de Bev Doolittle e 10 pranchas de Rorschach, todos no tamanho 10 x 15 cm. As figuras foram apresentadas uma de cada vez, sem limites de tempo para a observação, a uma distância de 30 cm do olho do observador (medida através de uma régua de 30 cm). Os participantes foram instruídos a circular a primeira figura que ele viu. Na sequência, o próprio participante circulava a figura com um marcador permanente. Após essa primeira fase, o pesquisador mediu as figuras circuladas em cada quadro em centímetros, e posteriormente as transformou em grau de ângulo visual para a análise estatística, utilizando a fórmula matemática a seguir: Tang a = Tamanho da figura (cm) / Distância do observador (30 cm). Ao comparar GEH ao GC, os resultados indicaram diferença estatisticamente significante para todas as categorias de estímulos. Assim, obteve-se: Dalí [(F23, 1288) = 6.199, p < 0.0000]; Bev [(F14, 784) = 3.8769, p < 0.0000]; e Rorschach [(F9, 504) = 4.5471, p < 0.0000]. Da mesma forma, os resultados da análise entre o GC e o GEC também apresentaram diferenças estatísticas significativas para todas as categorias: Dalí (F23, 966) = 3.4074, p < 0.0000; Bev (F14, 588) = 2.8021, p < 0.0004; e Rorschach (F9, 378) = 4.7101, p < 0.0000. Esses resultados sugerem a existência de alterações na percepção visual em pacientes com esquizofrenia na medida em que demonstram que esses pacientes percebem figuras que possuem ângulos visuais maiores quando comparados a participantes saudáveis, o que pode indicar uma disfunção nas vias visuais que processam objetos pequenos.

I Scanias elektriska och hybriddrivna fordon används elmotorer av typen P80 och P160. Båda motorer använder samma kontaktbrygga för elektrisk kontaktering mellan elmaskinen i motor-huset och växelriktaren. En tidigare utredning har kommit fram till att noggrannare analyser bör göras kring kontaktbryggans tillförlitlighet. I fokus står skruvförbanden som säkerställer kontakten mellan ingående kablar och elmotor. I det här arbetet görs teoretiska och empiriska undersökningar av de statiska förhållandena i dessa skruvförband och hur de påverkas av temperaturändringar. Undersökningen möjliggör tydliga slutsatser, och visar att temperaturvariation orsakar sättning och temporära förändringar av klämkraften. Förbanden är mycket känsliga för sättning och tem-peraturändringar. Det kan därför inte uteslutas att klämkrafterna i drift enligt kravspecifikation hamnar utanför gränserna av 1 till 10 kN. I ett sådant fall skulle kontaktbryggans strömöverförande funktion inte längre vara garanterad.Baserat på undersökningen tas fram sex alternativa koncept för kontaktbryggan. Två av dem är små förbättringar av den nuvarande lösningen, och fyra innebär nykonstruktioner med strömske-nor eller fjäderkontakter. Efter jämförelse av alternativen med den nuvarande lösningen rekom-menderas en nykonstruktion av kontaktbryggan med ingjutna strömskenor. Därutöver föreslås standardisering av materialegenskaper för koppar och mässing i skruvsammanhang. För en kort-siktig lösning bör mer väldefinierade åtdragningsmetoder komma till användning vid montering av skruvar på elkontakter. Detta kommer att minska klämkraftens spridning efter montering. / In Scania's electric and hybrid vehicles, P80 and P160 electric motors are used. Both motors use the same contact bridge for electrical connection between the electric machine in the engine housing and the inverter. A previous investigation has concluded that more accurate analyses should be made regarding the dependability of the contact bridge. The focus is on the screw connections that ensure the connection between the input cables and the electric motor. In this work, theoretical and empirical investigations of the static conditions in these screw connections are made and how they are affected by temperature changes. The examination allows clear conclusions, showing that temperature variation causes embedment and temporary changes in clamping force. The screw connections are very sensitive to embedment and temperature changes. Therefore, it cannot be precluded that the clamping forces end up outside the limits of 1 to 10 kN, when in operation according to the requirements specification. In such a case, the contact bridge's conducting function would no longer be guaranteed.Based on the examination, six alternative concepts for the contact bridge are presented. Two of them are small improvements to the current solution, and four involve new constructions with busbars or spring contacts. After comparing the alternatives with the current solution, a new construction of the connector bridge with overmolded busbars is recommended. In addition, the standardization of material properties for copper and brass in screw contexts is proposed. For a short-term solution, more well-defined tightening methods should be used when installing screws on electrical contacts. This is going to reduce the spread of clamping force after assembly.

Fordonsindustrin är inne i ett skifte, där förbränningsmotorer (ICE) bör-jar fasas ut och det satsas mer på eldrift med hjälp av batterier (BEV).  I detta arbete, som efterfrågades av Volvo Cars, utvecklades en matema-tisk modell som uppskattar den lägsta temperaturen i en elbils högspän-ningsbatteri. Modellen delades initialt upp i två delar, där den ena delen utgick från hur omgivningstemperaturen samt fordonets hastighet på-verkar eventuell värmeövergång mellan batteri och omgivning. Den andra delen utgick från hur batteriets kylsystem påverkar batteriets temperatur, där kylsystemets temperatur och flöde var de styrande fak-torerna. De styrande variablerna filtrerades med lågpassfilter där olika tidskonstanter användes. Den del som för varje tillfälle visade lägst tem-peratur var gällande. Modellen togs fram med hjälp av mätdata från testkörningar i kallt klimat där testbilens batteri var preparerad med ett antal externa temperatur sensorer, och de preparerade sensorerna an-sågs visa batteriets verkliga temperatur. Tidiga resultat visade att mo-dellen för omgivningstemperatur och hastighet visade relativt bra vär-den men saknade inflytande från kylsystemets dynamik medan mo-dellen för kylsystemet fungerade mindre bra i de flesta fall. Modellen modifierades därför till att ha hastighet och omgivningstemperatur som basfunktion och kylsystemets påverkan adderades. Resultatet visade att den senare modellen hanterade systemets dynamik bättre än tidigare modell. I framtida studier bör batteriets termiska massa samt dess egen-uppvärmning tas i beaktning. / The automotive industry is shifting from internal combustion engines (ICE) cars to battery electric vehicles (BEV). In this work, requested by Volvo Cars, a mathematical model was developed that estimates the lowest temperature of an electric car's high-voltage battery. The model was initially divided into two parts, where one part was based on how the ambient temperature and the vehicle's speed affect any heat transfer between battery and surroundings. While the second part was based on how the battery's cooling system affects the battery temperature, where the cooling system temperature and flow were the controlling factors. The controlling variables were filtered with low-pass filters where dif-ferent time constants were used. The part that showed the lowest tem-perature for each occasion was valid. The model was developed using measurement data from test runs in cold climates where the test car's battery was prepared with more temperature sensors than are in a pro-duction battery and the prepared sensors were considered to show the battery's actual temperature. Early results showed that the ambient tem-perature and speed model showed relatively good values but lacked in-fluence from the cooling system, while the model for the cooling system worked less well in most cases. The model was therefore modified to have speed and ambient temperature as the base function and the cool-ing system's impact was added. The results showed that the latter model handled the dynamics of the system better than the previous model. In future studies, the thermal mass of the battery and its self-heating should be considered.

I detta examensarbete simuleras ett värmehanteringssystem i Matlab Simulink för en elektrisk lastbil, det för att värmehantera fordonets klimat. Där en värmepump används för nedkylning av kupé och batteri samt en PTC (elektrisk värmare) för uppvärmning av detsamma. Värmepumpen fungerar genom att kompressorn förångar R-134a kylmedlet i systemet som sedan omvandlas till vätska vid nedkylning av kondensorn som utbyter energi med omgivande luften. Vätskan skickas vidare till en mottagare som filtrerar kylmedlet för att sedan överföras till en expansionsventil som kontrollerar trycket i systemet. Vätskan går sedan till evaporatorn för att kylas ned av ett utbyte med varmare omgivande luft från kupén, därefter börjar nedkylningsproessen om. PTC värmaren har en passiv uppvärmningsfunktionaliteten som tar emot ström genom ett motstånd och värmer komponenten med hjälp av en vattencykel. Batteriets räckvidd minskar vid fel temperaturer därav kan batteriets temperatur kontrolleras i drift. Det för att teoretiskt öka räckvidden på fordonet genom att ha batteriet vid en mer gynnsam temperatur. En förstudie genomförs där data samlas in för att sedan modellera och redovisa simulerade resultat som åstadkoms för olika scenarion med uppvärmning och nedkylning. Det visar sig att systemets batteri tar för lång tid vid nedkylning och uppvärmning på grund av dess stora massa. Detta då batteriet inte når måltemperaturen under simuleringens gång som körs i 1 timme och därav inte efter komforttiden som är 10 minuter. Vidare når kupéns delar önskad temperatur inom simuleringstiden förutom under kupéns nedkylning där taket kyls långsammare än önskat. Den enda delen av kupén som uppnår komforttiden är kupéns sidor vid uppvärmning. Vilket betyder att optimeringar på systemet bör tillämpas för att åstadkomma bättre och mer realistiska resultat. / In this thesis, a thermal management system is simulated in Matlab Simulink for an battery electric truck, in order to thermally manage the vehicle's climate. A heat pump is implemented to cool down the cabin and battery while a PTC (electric heater) is implemented to heat the systems respectively. The heat pump works by the compressor vaporizing the R-134a refrigerant in the system, which is then converted to liquid when cooled by the condenser, which exchanges energy with the surrounding air. The liquid is sent further to a receiver that filters the refrigerant and is then transferred to an expansion valve that controls the pressure in the system. The liquid then goes to the evaporator to be cooled by an exchange with warmer ambient air from the vehicle cabin, after which the cooling process begins again. The PTC heater has a passive heating functionality that receives current through a resistor and heats the component using a coolant loop. The battery's range is reduced at incorrect temperatures, therefore the battery's temperature can be checked during operation. This is to theoretically increase the range of the vehicle by having the battery at a more favorable temperature. A pre-study is carried out where data is collected to then model, and present simulated results that were achieved for different scenarios with heating and cooling. It turns out that the system's battery takes too long to cool down and warm up due to its large mass. This is because the battery does not reach the target temperature during the course of the simulation, which is run for 1 hour, and therefore not after the comfort time which is 10 minutes. Furthermore, the parts of the cabin reach the desired temperature within the simulation time, except during the cooling down of the cabin, where the roof cools more slowly than desired. The only part of the cabin that achieves the comfort time is the sides of the cabin when heated. Which means that optimizations to the system should be applied in order to achieve better and more realistic results.

Driven by the goal of decreasing emissions and pollutants towards a more sustainable future, the automotive industry is undergoing a rapid transition towards battery-powered electric vehicles. This shift to sustainable transport is fast-paced, and new technical solutions are being offered on a regular basis to fulfil the future needs for electric vehicles, including battery-electric trucks. This continuously necessitates a fast development of the battery-electric truck, along with the cooling system. To validate the cooling system, Scania's preferred approaches are testing and 3D simulations. However, these approaches are time-consuming and cannot match the pace of the design or the development. This thesis addresses the implementation of using 1D Simulations (GT-Suite) to carry out coolant filling simulations as a more efficient approach by studying the filling of the battery cooling system in an electric truck and, later, validating the results obtained with a test rig. In this thesis, different cases were defined, each adding more complexity to the circuit, and the parameters studied were the filling times and the location of air traps. Finally, a case with a closed circuit and running a coolant pump was developed to study the possibilities of devising quicker deaeration techniques for the circuit. The work completed in this thesis may be used as an example of how filling simulations can be performed with GT-Suite. This thesis is a good starting point, exploring a vast potential in using 1D Simulations to simulate the coolant-air interaction in a cooling system. Nonetheless, the findings revealed that GT-Suite v2020 and v2021 lack a robust model to properly simulate the interaction of coolant and air in certain sections of the circuit. In addition, the simulation model failed to obtain a steady-state solution in some cases resulting in discrepancies between the results from the test rig and the simulations. In conclusion, it was found that 1D simulations are not an ideal way forward when individual components of the cooling circuit are being considered, for example, the cooling plates, but are much quicker and seem to be a promising method to get an overview on a system level. / Fordonsindustrin drivs av målet att minska utsläppen och föroreningarna mot en mer hållbar framtid och genomgår en snabb omställning mot batteridrivna elfordon. Övergången till hållbara transporter går snabbt och nya tekniska lösningar erbjuds regelbundet för att möta de framtida behoven av elfordon, inklusive batteridrivna lastbilar. Detta kräver kontinuerligt en snabb utveckling av den batteri-elektriska lastbilen, tillsammans med kylsystemet. För att validera kylsystemet är Scanias föredragna metoder testning och 3D-simuleringar. Dessa tillvägagångssätt är dock tidskrävande och kan inte matcha takten i designen eller utvecklingen. Denna avhandling behandlar implementeringen av att använda 1D-simuleringar (GT-Suite) för att utföra kylvätskefyllningssimuleringar som ett effektivare tillvägagångssätt genom att studera fyllningen av batterikylsystemet i en elektrisk lastbil och senare validera resultaten som erhållits med en testrigg. I denna avhandling definierades olika fall, var och en lägga till mer komplexitet till kretsen, och de undersökta parametrarna var påfyllningstiderna och platsen för luftfällor. Slutligen utvecklades ett fall med en sluten krets och kör en kylvätskepump för att studera möjligheterna att utforma snabbare deaerationstekniker för kretsen. Arbetet i denna avhandling kan användas som ett exempel på hur fyllningssimuleringar kan utföras med GT-Suite. Denna avhandling är en bra utgångspunkt och utforskar en enorm potential i att använda 1D-simuleringar för att simulera kylvätske-luftinteraktionen i ett kylsystem. Resultaten visade dock att GT-Suite v2020 och v2021 saknar en robust modell för att korrekt simulera interaktionen mellan kylvätska och luft i vissa delar av kretsen. Dessutom kunde simuleringsmodellen inte få en steady state-lösning i vissa fall vilket resulterade i skillnader mellan resultaten från testriggen och simuleringarna. Sammanfattningsvis konstaterades det att 1D-simuleringar inte är en idealisk väg framåt när enskilda komponenter i kylkretsen övervägs, till exempel kylplattorna, men är mycket snabbare och verkar vara en lovande metod för att få en översikt på systemnivå.

This thesis develops a time-domain integrated modeling approach for design of hybrid-electric marine propulsion systems that enables co-simulation of powertrain dynamics along with ship hydrodynamics. This work illustrates the model-based design and analysis methodology by performing a case study for an EV conversion of a short-cross ferry using the BC Ferries’ M.V. Klitsa. A data acquisition study was performed to establish the typical mission cycle of the ship for its crossing route between Brentwood Bay and Mill Bay, across the Saanich Inlet near Victoria, BC Canada. The data provided by the data acquisition study serves as the primary means of validation for the model’s ability to accurately predict powertrain loads over the vessel’s standard crossing. This functionality enables model-based powertrain and propulsion system design optimization through simulation to intelligently deploy hybrid-electric propulsion architectures. The ship dynamics model is developed using a Newton-Euler approach which incorporates hydrodynamic coefficient data produced by potential flow solvers. The radiation forces resulting from vessel motion are fit to continuous time-domain transfer functions for computational efficiency. The ship resistance drag matrix is parameterized using results from uRANS CFD studies that span the operating range of the vessel. A model of the existing well-mounted azimuthing propeller is developed to predict thrust production and mechanical torque for pseudo-second quadrant operation to represent all operating conditions seen in real operation. The propeller model is parameterized from the results of a series of uRANS CFD on the propeller geometry. A full battery-electric powertrain model is produced to study the accuracy of the model in predicting the drivetrain loads, as well as assessing the technological feasibility of an EV conversion for this particular vessel. A dual-polarization equivalent circuit model is created for a large-scale LTO battery pack. An average value model with MTPA control and dynamics loss model is developed for a commercially available electric drive system. Power loss models were developed for required converter topologies for computational efficiency. The model results for load prediction are compared to data acquired, and results indicate that the approach is effective for enabling the study of various powertrain architecture alternatives. / Graduate

Till följd av de klimatmål som Sverige satt upp för att bemöta klimatförändringar förväntas andelen intermittent elproduktion öka, framförallt sol- och vindkraft. För att undvika dyra investeringar och kapacitetsförstärkningar tillföljd av den intermittent elproduktionen är det viktigt att det redan existerande elnätet effektiviseras och utnyttjas på ett smart sätt. En större andel förnyelsebar elproduktion är inte den enda förändringen som påverkar det svenska elsystemet. Antalet elbilar i den svenska personbilsflottan ökar ständigt och som en viktig del för att nå nationella mål är det både troligt och önskvärt att den fortsätter att öka. Elbilarna för även med sig andra potentiella användningsområden än transport. På grund av batteriets lagringskapacitet kan el lagras under laddning men även återinföras på nätet med hjälp av Vehicle-to-Gridteknik. Detta innebär att elbilen kan få sekundära användningsområden som kan bidra till, och vara en del av, framtidens elnät. Syftet med arbetet har varit att studera lokal effekttoppsreduktion med hjälp av elbilens förmåga att återinföra el till fastigheten då behovet är stort. Arbetet ska vidare besvara vilka ekonomiska incitament som kan uppstå på en lokal nivå samt hur potentialen ser ut för elbilen att verka som en aktiv del i ett smart elnät. För att undersöka elbilens förmåga till effekttoppsreduktion har effektbehovet för de 755 lägenheter på området Lilljansberget i Umeå under år 2016 använts. En modell utvecklades i programvaran Excel vars syfte var att simulera hur urladdningen ifrån elbilarna, efter sista ankomsttid på dygnet, under ett års tid påverkar det nya effektbehovet till området. Modellen ska motsvara verkliga förhållanden varvid parametrar som berör effektbehov, elbilar, laddning och urladdning bestämts utifrån verkligheten och applicerats. Reduktionen optimerades sedan med tillägget What’sBest! varvid ett nytt maxbehov till området kunde bestämmas. Optimeringen har skett på månads- och årsbasis samt med urladdningseffekter på 3,6 och 6,6 kW. Vidare har scenarion undersökts som gör gällande att andelen elbilar motsvarar 10, 20 och 30% av områdets bilar. Arbetet visar att körmönstret för bilar korrelerar bra med höga effekttoppar vilket stärks av resultatet som visar att en reduktion är möjlig för de flesta scenarion kring 100 kW, motsvarande ungefär 25% av områdets tidigare maximala effektbehov. Reduktionen visar vidare på potential för lönsamhet då intäkterna, baserade på effekttariffer, överstiger degenereringskostnaderna av batterierna oavsett scenario och tidsspann för optimeringen. Den mest lönsamma effektreduktionen sker på årsbasis med 20% elbilar där en årlig intäkt på ca 37 tSEK, inkluderat degenereringskostnader av batteriet, är möjlig. Intäkten fördelad på delaktiga elbilar är mellan 700 – 1400 kr per år. För att återspegla arbetets resultat i verkligheten bör även ett lokalt installerat batteri finnas för att bättre garantera reduktionen då tillfälliga förändringar gällande tillgängliga elbilar eller effektbehov uppstår. En större effektreduktion har visat sig vara både möjlig men även direkt lönsamt. Däremot anses intäkterna, baserat på kostnader för effekttariffer, vara för låga i förhållande till utgifter och ersättning varvid ekonomiska incitament utifrån effekttariffer anses svårmotiverade. Fortsatt arbete gällande vidare värdering av effektreduktion behövs i syfte att ge svar på vilka ekonomiska ersättningar som kan bli aktuella. Den lokala effektreduktionen som studerats i detta arbete förändrar kraftigt effektbehvet för området men påverkan på elnätet som stort förblir litet. Därför dras slutsatsen att lokal effekttoppsreduktion med elbilar inte är en enskild lösning på framtidens förändrade elsystem men kan däremot vara med och bidra till ett smart elnät. / Due to climate targets setup by Sweden to address climate change, the share of intermittent electricity generation is expected to increase, especially solar and wind power. In order to avoid expensive investments and capacity enhancement, due to uneven electricity production, it is important that the already existing power grid is efficient and utilized in a smart way. A larger proportion of renewable electricity generation is not the only change that affects the Swedish electricity system. The number of battery electric vehicles (BEV) in the Swedish car fleet is constantly increasing and as an important part of achieving national targets it is both likely and desirable that it continues. BEVs also carry other potential uses than transport. Due to the battery’s storage capacity, electricity can be stored during charging but also returned later to the grid using Vehicle-to-Grid technology. This means that the BEV can have secondary applications, which can contribute to and be part of, the future power grid. The purpose of this study has been to study local power reduction with help of battery electric vehicles ability to recharge electricity to the property when power need is high. The work will furthermore answer the financial incentives that may arise at a local level and how the potential is for BEVs to be an active part of a smart grid. To investigate the potential of the BEVs power reduction, the power need for the 755 apartments in the area of Lilljansberget in Umeå for 2016 has been used. A model was then developed in Excel software, the purpose of which was to simulate how the discharges from BEVs, after last arrival time of the day, over a year’s time, affect the new power usage for the area. Since the model in Excel is intended to correspond to actual conditions, parameters related to electric cars, charging and discharging have been determined and applied. The reduction was then optimized with the plug-in program What’s Best! whereby a new maximum usage for the area could be determined. The optimization has been done on a monthly and annual basis and with 3.6 and 6.6 kW discharge effects. Furthermore, scenarios have been investigated claiming that the proportion of BEVs corresponds to 10, 20 and 30% of the area’s car fleet. The work shows that driving pattern for cars correlates well with high power peaks, which is reinforced by the results that show that a reduction is possible for most scenarios around 100 kW, corresponding to approximately 25% of the area’s previous maximum power need. The reduction further indicates potential for profitability, as revenue, based on power tariffs, exceeds the degeneration costs of batteries regardless of the scenario and time span for optimization. The most profitable power reduction occurs on an annual basis with 20% BEVs, with an annual revenue of approximately 37,000 SEK, including degeneration costs of the battery. Revenue distributed on participating BEVs is between 700 - 1400 SEK per year. In order to reflect the results of the work in reality, a locally installed battery should also be in place to better guarantee reduction as temporary changes to available BEVs or power usage arise. A major reduction in power has proven to be both possible but also directly profitable. On the other hand, revenues, based on costs for power tariffs, are considered to be too low in relation to expenses and remuneration, which makes such an investment difficult to motivate. Continued work on further valuation of power reduction is needed to provide answers to financial compensation that may be applicable. The local power reduction studied in this work greatly changes the power demand for the area but the impact on the grid remains largely small. Therefore, it is concluded that local power reduction with battery electric vehicles is not a solution to the future electrical system, but can at local level, contribute to a smart grid.

This thesis provides an insight into battery modeling in electric vehicles which includes degradation mechanisms as in automotive operation in electric vehicles. As electric vehicles with lithium ion batteries increase in popularity there is an increased need to study and model the capacity losses in such batteries. If there is a good understanding of the phenomena involved and an ability to predict these losses there is also a foundation to take measures to minimize these losses. In this thesis a battery model for lithium ion batteries which includes heat dissipation is used as groundwork. This model is expanded with the addition of capacity losses due to usage as well as storage. By combining this with a simple vehicle model one can use these models to achieve an understanding as to how a battery or pack of several batteries would behave in a specific driving scenario. Much of the focus in the thesis is put into comparing the different factors of degradation to highlight what the major contributors are. The conclusion is drawn that heat is the main cause for degradation for batteries in electric vehicles. This applies for driving usage as well as during storage. As heat is generated when a battery is used, the level of current is also a factor, as well as in which state of charge region the battery is used.