This diploma thesis is focused on the issue of connecting new sources to the distribution system and their subsequent operation in the network. The theoretical part describes the conditions of connection and operation of resources in the network according to the established rules. In the practical part, a number of photovoltaic sources and battery vehicles are implemented into the current system according to selected scenarios. Subsequently, the daily course of power flow and voltage conditions in the network is calculated.

Purpose. Road transportation is one of the major sources of GHG emissions today. Technological improvements in fuel consumption, as well as the electrification of vehicles can reduce emissions from road transportation. This study aims to investigate the optimal time for vehicle replacement in Sweden for an ICEV to minimise GHG emissions. While many LCA studies compare the total emissions from ICEVs with BEVs and conduct a break-even analysis, little focus is dedicated to the implications of the results. Previous studies did not estimate the time of vehicle replacement at which GHG emissions are minimised. To represent the Swedish vehicle fleet, the optimal replacement time is estimated for a Volvo V70 (petrol, 2011 model), when replacing it with a Volvo V60 (petrol, 2020 model) (Scenario 1), correspondingly when replacing with a Polestar 2 (battery-electric, 2020 model) (Scenario 2). Methods. For the estimation of lifetime emissions resulting from the three vehicle models, a Life Cycle Analysis was conducted. The functional unit investigated was 200.000 km driven with the V70, the V60 and Polestar 2, assuming that the vehicles were operated in Sweden. The emission values are then used to model the vehicle replacement in each scenario and the results are analysed. Findings. The LCA study showed that the V70 emits 64,08 tCO2eq. over its total lifespan, the V60 46,48 tCO2eq., and the Polestar 2 29,05 tCO2eq. The study showed that there is not one optimal replacement time, but the optimal time for vehicle replacement, from a carbon emission point of view, is inherently linked to the total driven mileage and number of cars owned. However, the trend shows that the time of replacement in Scenario 1 should be close to the End-of-Life of the V70. For Scenario 2 it is beneficial to replace the V70 immediately.

The aim of this thesis project is to contribute to an understanding of which charging monitoring solutions for mobile phones are valuable and possible for Scania to implement. These solutions are intended to make the person responsible for charging feel in control of the process. This project focuses on the implementation of a graphical user interface (GUI), with the possible integration of a server that is developed by another thesis worker at Scania. The scope is set to looking at the possibilities and limitations for one charging station, one vehicle and one driver.  Designing good user interfaces is more than mapping user needs to solutions. To design good interfaces, the technological possibilities and limitations must also be considered. This has partly been done by integrating and testing some relevant features with Scania’s battery electric trucks.  In terms of creating value for the user, the driver, a contextual design approach, developed by Hugh Beyer and Karen Holtzblatt, has been chosen. In this way, different solutions can be designed in a user-centered way. One of the results of this project is a minimum viable product (MVP) that Scania or other thesis workers can continue to develop. This MVP has mainly one feature that has been implemented and tested briefly.  The conclusion is that charging monitoring solutions that make drivers feel in control of the charging process have interfaces and interactions that are perceived as relevant by the driver. The relevant features are those that drivers would expect to have access to.

In recent years the vehicle industries have been making much efforts to reduce the environmentalimpact by switching from the traditional combustion engine to electrification with battery driven electricvehicles. Producing electric trucks requires more batteries and operates at a higher voltage and currentthan commercial electric cars. Therefore, detection and protection from short-circuits are crucial issuesin the development of these vehicles to ensure safety. This master thesis project aims to investigatedifferent methods for current measurement, which are commercially available and used in the batteryjunction box in an electric vehicle for current monitoring and detection of overcurrent and short-circuits. A practical experimental validation is then performed to test the desaturation detection method as ashort-circuit detection method with a solid state breaker. The experimental results showed that theshort-circuit could be detected within just 7µs and the total time for the solid state breaker to detectand cut the circuit could be done within around 15µs. The discussion around the current measurementmethod came to the conclusion that the Hall sensor or the flux gate current transducer could be apossible replacement of the shunt that is currently being used in order to reduce losses as the systemoperates at higher current levels. Comparison of this method with different existing current measurement sensors is suggested to do inthe future work.

With the emerging nationwide availability of plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) at prices attainable for many consumers, electric utilities, system operators, and researchers have been investigating the impact of this new source of electricity demand. The presence of PEVs on the electric grid might offer benefits equivalent to dedicated utility-scale energy storage systems by leveraging vehicles' grid-connected energy storage through vehicle-to-grid (V2G) enabled infrastructure. Existing research, however, has not effectively examined the interactions between PEVs and the electric grid in a V2G system. To address these shortcomings in the literature, longitudinal vehicle travel data are first used to identify patterns in vehicle use. This analysis showed that vehicle use patterns are distinctly different between weekends and weekdays, seasonal interactions between vehicle charging, electric load, and wind generation might be important, and that vehicle charging might increase already high peak summer electric load in Texas. Subsequent simulations of PEV charging were performed, which revealed that unscheduled charging would increase summer peak load in Texas by approximately 1\%, and that uncertainty that arises from unscheduled charging would require only limited increases in frequency regulation procurements. To assess the market potential for the implementation of a V2G system that provides frequency regulation ancillary services, and might be able to provide financial incentives to participating PEV owners, a two-stage stochastic programming formulation of a V2G system operator was created. In addition to assessing the market potential for a V2G system, the model was also designed to determine the effect of the market power of the V2G system operator on prices for frequency regulation, the effect of uncertainty in real-time vehicle availability and state-of-charge on the aggregator's ability to provide regulation services, and the effect of different vehicle characteristics on revenues. Results from this model showed that the V2G system operator could generate revenue from participation in the frequency regulation market in Texas, even when subject to the uncertainty in real-time vehicle use. The model also showed that the V2G system operator would have a significant impact on prices, and thus as the number of PEVs participating in a V2G program in a given region increased, per-vehicle revenues, and thus compensation provided to vehicle owners, would decline dramatically. From these estimated payments to PEV owners, the decision to participate in a V2G program was analyzed. The balance between the estimated payments to PEV owners for participating in a V2G program and the increased probability of being left with a depleted battery as a result of V2G operations indicate that an owner of a range-limited battery electric vehicle (BEV) would probably not be a viable candidate for joining a V2G program, while a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) owner might find a V2G program worthwhile. Even for a PHEV owner, however, compensation for participating in a V2G program will provide limited incentive to join. / text

The Well-To-Wheels (WTW) methodology is widely used for policy making in the transportation sector. In this paper updated WTW calculations are provided, relying on 2013 statistic data, for the carbon intensity (CI) of the European electricity mix; detail is provided for electricity consumed in each EU Member State (MS). An interesting aspect presented is the calculation of the GHG content of electricity traded between Countries, affecting the carbon intensity of the electricity consumed at national level. The amount and CI of imported electricity is a key aspect: a Country importing electricity from another Country with a lower CI of electricity will lower, after the trade, its electricity CI, while importing electricity from a Country with a higher CI will raise the CI of the importing Country. In average, the CI of electricity used in EU at low voltage in 2013 was 447 gCO2eq/kWh, which is the 17% less compared to 2009. Then, some examples of calculation of GHG emissions from the use of electric vehicles (EVs) compared to internal combustion engine vehicles are provided. The use of EVs instead of gasoline vehicles can save (about 60% of) GHG in all or in most of the EU MSs, depending on the estimated consumption of EVs. Compared with diesel, EVs show average GHG savings of around 50% and not savings at all in some EU MS.

För att klara Parisavtalets mål om att begränsa den globala uppvärmningen till 1,5 grader är transportsektorn en viktig faktor då den svarar för nära en fjärdedel av Europas växthusgasutsläpp. Användningen av energi från förnybara energikällor inom transport har ökat de senaste åren, med Sverige som bäst inom EU. Ökningen av elbilar i Sverige medför dock en belastning på nuvarande laddinfrastruktur. För att hitta laddplats kan bilens inbyggda navigator eller en navigeringstjänst som integreras med bilen via smartphone användas. Dessa alternativ fungerar dock först när resenären sitter i bilen, vilket gör att reseplanering i förväg försvåras. Denna studie undersöker hur planering och långresa med elbil kan underlättas via en tjänst som optimerar alternativa resvägar med stopp för snabbladdning. Studien genomfördes med mixade metoder och lades upp som en adaption av processen i Design Thinking. Genom funktionsanalys av fyra mobiltjänster nåddes insikt om att användare behöver ha god kännedom om fordonstekniska specifikationer för att tjänsterna ska fungera tillförlitligt. Med fokus på en aktivitets minsta beståndsdelar, beskrivna i Activity-centered design, formulerades ett lösningsförslag enligt principer funna i design av mikrointeraktioner. Den föreslagna lösningen i form av en digital prototyp utvärderades av sex deltagare genom en SUS (System Usability Scale)-enkät. Resultatet excellent är inte generaliserbart med tanke på det relativt sett låga deltagarantalet, men kan ändå antyda att elbilsresande kan förenklas via en mikrointeraktion där fordonets registreringsnummer anges för att automatiskt hämta fordonsdata. Sammantaget kan resultaten från studien bidra vid utveckling av tjänster för långresande med elbil riktade till en bredare allmänhet. Flera iterationer av designprocessen med observationer av användare, kvalitativa intervjuer och formativa utvärderingar skulle kunna ge bättre förståelse för användbarheten. / To reach the objectives of the Paris agreement, to limit global warming to 1,5 degrees, the transport sector is a key means by owing responsibility for nearly a quarter of Europe’s greenhouse gas emissions. The use of sustainable sources of energy has increased significantly in the transport sector over the recent years, where Sweden places itself in the lead. Though, the increase of battery electrical vehicles (BEV) in Sweden causes a considerable strain on the present charging infrastructure. To find charging stations; the traveler might use the built-in navigation system in the car, or by integrating a navigation system via a smartphone. Nevertheless, these possibilities are limited to in-car use thus making beforehand route planning difficult. This thesis investigates how planning and conducting a long journey with a BEV could be simplified by a service that optimizes alternative routes with fast charging breaks. The study was conducted using mixed methods and built on an adaptation of the process in Design Thinking. By examining four mobile services via functional analysis, insight was given on the need for the traveler to have thorough knowledge of vehicle specific technical data for the services to perform trustworthy. With focus on an activity’s smallest components, described in Activity-centered design, a solution proposal was formulated according to principles found in design of microinteractions. The suggested solution in the shape of an interactive prototype was evaluated by six participants via a SUS (System Usability Scale)-survey. The result excellent cannot be generalized due to the limited numbers of participants, though it clearly suggests that travel by BEV could be simplified and facilitated by a microinteraction that uses the license plate number to retrieve vehicle specific data. The overall results from the study could support development of services for traveling with BEV, aimed for a broader public. Several iterations of the design process with observation of users, qualitative interviews and formative evaluations could bring deeper understanding for the usability.

Global warming issues are a widespread problem around the world and the emissions of greenhouse gases is one of the main contributors. The transport sector emits a significant amount of greenhouse gas emissions; thus, this contributes to global warming. To tackle this challenge the Swedish state introduced in July 2018 a system called bonus-malus system which aims to increase the proportion of eco-friendly cars and in the long run reducing greenhouse gases emissions from the transport sector. This paper examines the tax system within the Bonus-Malus system. Primarily investigating if Malus, tax system, impacted the demand for electric vehicles since it introduced. The study conducted based on a short panel data from Sweden´s 21 counties for the period 2016-2020 and the analysis method applied is a regression analysis. The results of this thesis confirm a strong positive relationship between the share of newly registered battery electric vehicles (BEV) and the Malus, but much weaker influence of the other studied variables. Suggesting that tax system induce on emission seem to be efficient at boost the demand for BEV

The functionality to both charge and discharge energy from and to the power grid to a Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) is referred to as Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G). This allows the customer to buy energy when the spot price is low and sell energy when the price is high to make a profit, called energy arbitrage. However, when the battery is charging, discharging, or idling for storage, battery degradation occurs due to chemical properties and reactions. This thesis developed a mathematical optimisation model in Python, using the modelling language Pyomo. Mathematical equations are used to integrate energy arbitrage and degradation data to reduce the total cost in terms of degradation and energy by finding an optimised charge and discharge pattern. The model allows different user scenarios to be analysed by changing inputs such as charger power, battery cost or daily driving distance. When using V2G technology, the State-of-Charge (SoC) level of BEVs battery packs can be adjusted to find SoC levels which minimise the battery degradation, while allowing the user to make a profit from energy arbitrage. The result shows that the V2G charging protocol, compared to protocols without a bidirectional charger could be beneficial for the simulated time periods, by both reducing degradation and the total energy cost. The results also indicate that the degradation cost of the battery is often the determining factor in the decision of when to charge or discharge, i.e., the substantial cost-saving strategy is to control the storage and cycle degradation to reduce the total degradation, rather than controlling the energy arbitrage. The model and the result of this thesis can be used by car manufacturers to learn more about how battery cell types behave in V2G mode and influence further work on V2G control.

BEVs are a critical pathway towards achieving energy independence and meeting greenhouse and pollutant gas reduction goals in the current and future transportation sector [1]. Automotive manufacturers are increasingly investing in the refinement of electric vehicles as they are becoming an increasingly popular response to the global need for reduced transportation emissions. Therefore, there is a desire to extract the most fuel economy from a vehicle as possible. Some areas that manufacturers spend much effort on include minimizing the vehicle’s mass, body drag coefficient, and drag within the powertrain. When these values are defined or unchangeable, interest is driven to other areas such as investigating the control strategy of the powertrain. If two or more electric motors are present in an electric vehicle, Torque Vectoring (TV) strategies are an option to further increase the fuel economy of electric vehicles. Most of the torque vectoring strategies in literature focus exclusively on enhancing the vehicle stability and dynamics with few approaches that consider efficiency or energy consumption. The limited research on TV that addresses system efficiency have been done on a small number of vehicle architectures, such as four independent motors, and are distributing torque front/rear instead of left/right which would not induce any yaw moment. The proposed research aims to address these deficiencies in the current literature. First, by implementing an efficiency-optimized TV strategy for a rear-wheel drive, dual-motor vehicle under straight-line driving as would be experienced in during the EPA drive cycle tests. Second, by characterizing the yaw moment and implementing strategies to mitigate any undesired yaw motion. The application of the proposed research directly impacts dual-motor architectures in a way that improves overall efficiency which also drives an increase in fuel economy. Increased fuel economy increases the range of electric vehicles and reduces the energy demand from an electrical source that may be of non-renewable origin such as coal.