Yes / The purpose of this study was to isolate and quantify the effects of observer response criterion on perimetric sensitivity, response variability, and maximum response probability. Twelve people with glaucoma were tested at three locations in the visual field (age = 47-77 years, mean deviation = -0.61 to -14.54 dB, test location Humphrey field analyzer [HFA] sensitivities = 1 to 30 dB). Frequency of seeing (FoS) curves were measured using a method of constant stimuli with two response paradigms: a "yes-no" paradigm similar to static automated perimetry and a criterion-free two interval forced choice (2IFC) paradigm. Comparison measures of sensitivity, maximum response probability, and response variability were derived from the fitted FoS curves. Sensitivity differences between the tasks varied widely (range = -11.3 dB to 21.6 dB) and did not correlate with visual field sensitivity nor whether the visual field location was in an area of steep sensitivity gradient within the visual field. Due to the wide variation in differences between the methods, there was no significant difference in mean sensitivity between the 2IFC task relative to the yes-no task, but a trend for higher sensitivity (mean = 1.9 dB, SD = 6.0 dB, P = 0.11). Response variability and maximum response probability did not differ between the tasks (P > 0.99 and 0.95, respectively). Perimetric sensitivity estimates are demonstrably altered by observer response criterion but the effect varies widely and unpredictably, even within a single test. Response bias should be considered a factor in perimetric test variability and when comparing sensitivities to nonperimetric data. The effect of response criterion on perimetric response variability varies widely and unpredictably, even within a single test. / Supported by ARC LP130100055; ARC LP150100815 (AT and AMM), College of Optometrists Research Fellowship (JD).

Eight study sites were established in mid-elevation, south aspect, mixed-oak forests in the Ridge and Valley and Allegheny Mountain physiographic provinces of Southwestern Virginia and West Virginia to address questions concerning the variability in species composition, richness, and relative abundance of vascular plant species in those communities. All forest strata were sampled using a nested plot design. Variability in species richness and species composition was found to be high. Total species richness values ranged from 84 to 273, and Sorrenson's Coefficient of Similarity index values indicated that approximately 46, 38, and 51 percent of the species in the overstory, mid-story, and herb stratum were the same among sites, respectively. However, despite differences in composition and richness, K-S tests revealed significant differences in the distribution of ranked relative abundance only in the mid-story at two sites. Differences did occur in the relative abundance of twelve growth form categories. While tree seedlings and perennial herbs dominated, on average, woody vines and fern species represented substantial coverage on sites in the Allegheny Mountains. Correlations among forest strata were weak. The greatest amount of variation in species richness was attributiable to the standard deviation of a forest site quality index (FSQI), which was thought to represent the variation in microtopography across each site. The lack of correlation and high variability in plant species richness and composition, despite similarities in topographic characteristics, reinforce the inherent weaknesses involved with using the chronosequence approach to studying ecological responses in the Southern Appalachian mixed-oak region. Future remeasurement and long term monitoring of these study sites, following the implementation of silvicultural manipulations, will provide the information needed to make inference on the effects of forest management practices on Southern Appalachian mixed-oak forests. / Master of Science

Habitual (i.e., average or typical) sleep duration and sleep efficiency vary widely by demographic characteristics, including age, gender, and racial/ethnic identity. Despite a wealth of studies on demographic patterns in habitual sleep, these results are often based on cross-sectional surveys, which ask participants to retrospectively recall their "typical" or "recent" sleep. Yet, sleep is a highly dynamic behavior and may fluctuate substantially from night-to-night. This intraindividual variability (IIV) in sleep/wake patterns can be captured a multitude of ways, most commonly by using formula-based calculations. Although there is growing attention on the importance of IIV in sleep, findings on demographic differences are still inconclusive, and there are no guidelines for typical values of IIV in sleep. The present study quantitatively synthesized 8 international data sets (N = 2847 participants, 29,832 total days of sleep data), focusing on examining age, gender, and racial/ethnic identity differences in IIV in sleep measured via sleep diaries, actigraphy, and electroencephalography. Sleep duration and sleep efficiency varied widely from night-to-night within people (duration: 64-119 minutes; efficiency: 5-8%). Different metrics of IIV were strongly correlated within and across sleep measurement types. Younger adults had more IIV in diary and actigraphy sleep duration. Gender differences in IIV in sleep were inconsistent, and non-Hispanic/Latinx and White adults had less IIV in sleep compared to other racial/ethnic minority groups. Results emphasize the importance of assessing IIV in sleep, and show that even among healthy sleepers, sleep varies from night-to-night. Like mean sleep, there may also be disparities in IIV in sleep by demographic characteristics, highlighting a need for targeted interventions to stabilize sleep and improve health.

<p>Global mean surface air temperature (GMST) is one of the most well-known and robust measures of global climate change both contemporarily as well as through deep time. In contemporary climate science, the most often discussed causes of GMST change are referred to as external radiative forcings, which are considered to be exogenous to the land-atmosphere-ocean system and which impose a radiative energy imbalance (N) at the top of the earth’s atmosphere. Examples of external radiative forcings include changes in well-mixed greenhouse gas concentrations, changes in volcanic or anthropogenic aerosol loading, anthropogenic changes in land use, and changes in incoming solar radiation. The climate system can also produce unforced variability in GMST that spontaneously emerges from the internal dynamics of the land-atmosphere-ocean system. Unforced GMST variability can emerge via a vertical redistribution of heat within the climate system. For example, there can be a net transport of energy from below the ocean’s mixed layer to the surface during an El-Niño event. Additionally, unforced GMST variability can be due to an unforced change in N. For example, an internally generated change in the strength of an ocean circulation could alter the extent of sea ice and thus change the Earth’s albedo.</p><p>Understanding the magnitude and mechanisms underlying unforced GMST variability is relevant for both the attribution of past climate change to various causes, as well to the prediction of future changes on policy-relevant timescales. However, the literature on unforced GMST variability, particularly at interdecadal and longer timescales, is inconsistent and there is significant disagreement on its magnitude, on its primary geographic origins, and on the physical mechanisms that are most responsible.</p><p>This dissertation seeks to advance the scientific understanding of unforced GMST variability by addressing seven primary scientific goals: 1) To identify the geographic locations (and by proxy modes of variability) that are most responsible for unforced GMST variability in both the instrumental record and in climate models. 2) To identify the primary reasons why AOGCMs disagree on the magnitude of interdecadal unforced GMST variability. 3) To quantify the magnitude of unforced GMST variability in observations over the instrumental record as well as in multi-proxy reconstructions over the past millennium. 4) To quantify the degree to which unforced GMST variability is influenced by internally generated N energy imbalances. 5) To understand how anomalous N fluxes can influence large scale modes of surface temperature variability that affect GMST, such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO). 6) To understand the nature of the restoring force responsible for returning a perturbed GMST anomaly back to equilibrium; and 7) To understand how the magnitude and mechanisms of GMST variability might change in the future as the climate warms. </p><p>This research relies on the analysis of coupled Atmosphere-Ocean general circulation models (AOGCMs) that participated in Phase 5 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5), satellite observations of the Earth’s energy budget from the Clouds and Earth’s Radiant Energy System (CERES), instrumental surface temperature observations from NASA GISS Surface Temperature Analysis (GISTEMP), atmospheric reanalysis data from the European Center for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts interim reanalysis (ERA-I) and surface temperature reconstructions over the past millennium from numerous multiproxy archives.</p><p>This work has yielded six primary conclusions: I) Dynamics over the tropical Pacific Ocean represent the primary contributor to unforced GMST variability at interdecadal and longer timescales with lesser contributions from dynamics in the subpolar north Atlantic and Southern Ocean. II) AOGCMs tend to underestimate the magnitude of unforced GMST variability at interdecadal and longer timescales relative to both instrumental and reconstructed surface temperature datasets. III) N imbalances can act to significantly enhance interdecadal GMST variability. IV) GMST is able to restore equilibrium after an internally generated perturbation via the transport of energy to high-latitude locations and via the rearrangement the atmospheric circulation; both of which allow for much more efficient release of outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) than would otherwise be expected. V) N imbalances can significantly enhance internal modes of variability such as the AMO; and VI) The magnitude of interdecadal GMST variability is likely to decline and the generating mechanisms of such variability may be fundamentally altered as climate warms over the 21st century. These results advance our understanding of unforced GMST variability and they have implications for attribution studies and may inform projections of climate change on interdecadal timescales.</p> / Dissertation

O presente trabalho teve como objetivo investigar se padrões variáveis de respostas podem ser instalados e mantidos por reforçamento negativo intermitente em um procedimento de esquiva em tentativas discretas. Seis ratos machos Wistar foram submetidos à modelagem e fortalecimento da resposta de pressão à barra com reforçamento positivo em uma caixa de condicionamento operante com duas barras (direita, D, e esquerda, E). Em seguida, essa resposta passou a ser reforçada negativamente em um procedimento de esquiva em tentativas discretas no qual um estímulo elétrico (US) de 0,5 s e 0,5 mA (em média) podia ocorrer ao final de um período de luz (CS). A emissão da resposta de pressão à barra durante o CS produzia o seu desligamento e um tom de 0,5 s e 10 Hz, cancelando o próximo US programado e iniciando um período de blackout sem qualquer contingência programada, após o qual um novo CS era apresentado. Duzentos US foram programados a cada sessão. O procedimento de esquiva se iniciou com reforçamento em FR 1 e FR 2 (com alternação das barras a cada 50 US programados). Posteriormente, sequências de três respostas foram reforçadas (com as duas barras disponíveis). Inicialmente, o reforçamento era contingente à variabilidade na emissão das sequências, avaliada pela disposição das respostas que as compõem entre as barras D e E: DDD, EED, DED etc. O variar foi reforçado de acordo com uma contingência Lag n, na qual apenas as sequências que diferiam das n anteriormente emitidas pelo sujeito evitavam o US, sendo o valor de n igual a 1, 2 ou 3. Uma vez que o desempenho se mostrou estável nessas fases, os sujeitos foram expostos ao procedimento Aco, no qual a distribuição de reforços foi acoplada àquela obtida na última sessão de Lag n, porém sem exigência de variação. Alguns sujeitos foram reexpostos à contingência Lag n após essa fase. Os resultados mostraram que todos os sujeitos apresentaram esquiva e altos índices variabilidade na emissão de sequências nas fases Lag n (medida pelo valor U), havendo queda sistemática desses índices sob o procedimento Aco. Os sujeitos reexpostos à Lag n mostraram recuperação dos altos índices de variação. Esses resultados sugerem que a variabilidade comportamental foi controlada pelo reforçamento negativo na contingência de esquiva proposta / This study aimed to investigate if variable patterns of responses can be acquired and maintained by intermittent negative reinforcement under a discrete-trial avoidance contingency. Six male Wistar rats were submitted to a lever-press response shaping session in an operant conditioning chamber with two levers (right, R, and left, L). Then, that response was negatively reinforced in a discrete-trial avoidance procedure in which a 0.5 s and 0.5 mA (average) shock (US) could occur after a light period (CS). Lever-press response emission during CS presentation turned off the CS, produced a 0.5 s and 10 Hz tone, canceled the next programmed US, and initiated a blackout period with no programmed contingency, after which a new CS was presented. Two hundred US were programmed per session. Initially, negative reinforcement occurred under FR 1 and FR 2 schedules (with levers alternation each 50 programmed US). Following, three response sequences were reinforced (with the two levers available). Reinforcement was contingent to behavioral variability, which was examined by comparing three-response sequences across R and L levers: RRR, LLR, RLR etc. Varying was reinforced according to a Lag contingency, in which only sequences that differed from n previous sequences avoided US (n was equal to 1, 2 or 3). After steady states were obtained in those contingencies, subjects were submitted to a yoke procedure, in which reinforcer distribution was yoked to the last Lag session, but without varying exigency. Some subjects were re-exposed to the Lag contingency after yoke procedure. Results showed that all the subjects avoided shocks and presented high levels of behavioral variability under the Lag contingency (measured by U value). During the yoke procedure, behavioral variability decreased systematically. Subjects that were re-exposed to the Lag contingency after yoke procedure recovered high levels of variation. These results suggest that behavioral variability was controlled by negative reinforcement under the proposed avoidance contingency

Slow and deep breathing (SDB) has long been regarded as a nonpharmacological method for dealing with several physiological and emotional imbalances, and widely used for relaxation purposes. There is, however, limited understanding of the putative mechanisms by which SDB acutely impacts the cardiovascular and autonomic systems to elicit chronic adaptations. The present thesis explored how the manipulation of breathing pattern and intrathoracic pressure during SDB could further the understanding of the regulatory mechanisms that underpin the acute cardiovascular response to SDB. This thesis makes an original contribution to the existing knowledge by reporting a previously undescribed inversion of normal within-breath (inspiration vs. expiration) left ventricular stroke volume (LVSV) pattern for breathing frequencies < 8 breaths∙min-1. This finding might reflect the influence of a lag between enhanced right atrial filling and right ventricular stroke volume during inspiration, and its expression in left ventricular stroke volume; this lag results from the time required for blood to transit the pulmonary circulation. Furthermore, blood pressure variability (BPV) was reduced significantly at the lowest breathing frequencies, likely due to the involvement of baroreflex mediated responses. The pattern of responses was consistent with the buffering of respiratory-driven fluctuations in left ventricular cardiac output (Q̇) and arterial blood pressure (ABP) by within breath fluctuations in heart rate (fc), i.e., respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) (Chapter 4). Chapter 5 demonstrated that magnifying negative intrathoracic pressure with inspiratory loading during SDB increased inspiratory pressure-driven fluctuations in LVSV and fc, and enhanced Q̇, independently of changes in VT and fR. The data support an important contribution to the amplification of RSA, during SDB, of previously underappreciated reflex, and/or 'myogenic', cardiac response mechanisms. The findings in Chapter 6 confirmed that inspiratory loading during SDB amplified the effects observed with un-loaded SDB (reported in chapter 5). In contrast, expiratory loading increased ABP and attenuated RSA, LVSV and Q̇ during SDB. A lower RSA for higher ABP, supports the presence of a formerly underappreciated contribution of sinoatrial node stretch to RSA, and throws into question the clinical benefits of expiratory resisted SDB, particularly in hypertensive populations. In conclusion, the findings of the present thesis provide novel information regarding the mechanisms contributing to acute cardiovascular response to SDB. These new insights may contribute to the development of more effective SDB interventions, geared towards maximising the perturbation to the cardiovascular control systems.

O presente trabalho teve como objetivo investigar se padrões variáveis de respostas podem ser instalados e mantidos por reforçamento negativo intermitente em um procedimento de esquiva em tentativas discretas. Seis ratos machos Wistar foram submetidos à modelagem e fortalecimento da resposta de pressão à barra com reforçamento positivo em uma caixa de condicionamento operante com duas barras (direita, D, e esquerda, E). Em seguida, essa resposta passou a ser reforçada negativamente em um procedimento de esquiva em tentativas discretas no qual um estímulo elétrico (US) de 0,5 s e 0,5 mA (em média) podia ocorrer ao final de um período de luz (CS). A emissão da resposta de pressão à barra durante o CS produzia o seu desligamento e um tom de 0,5 s e 10 Hz, cancelando o próximo US programado e iniciando um período de blackout sem qualquer contingência programada, após o qual um novo CS era apresentado. Duzentos US foram programados a cada sessão. O procedimento de esquiva se iniciou com reforçamento em FR 1 e FR 2 (com alternação das barras a cada 50 US programados). Posteriormente, sequências de três respostas foram reforçadas (com as duas barras disponíveis). Inicialmente, o reforçamento era contingente à variabilidade na emissão das sequências, avaliada pela disposição das respostas que as compõem entre as barras D e E: DDD, EED, DED etc. O variar foi reforçado de acordo com uma contingência Lag n, na qual apenas as sequências que diferiam das n anteriormente emitidas pelo sujeito evitavam o US, sendo o valor de n igual a 1, 2 ou 3. Uma vez que o desempenho se mostrou estável nessas fases, os sujeitos foram expostos ao procedimento Aco, no qual a distribuição de reforços foi acoplada àquela obtida na última sessão de Lag n, porém sem exigência de variação. Alguns sujeitos foram reexpostos à contingência Lag n após essa fase. Os resultados mostraram que todos os sujeitos apresentaram esquiva e altos índices variabilidade na emissão de sequências nas fases Lag n (medida pelo valor U), havendo queda sistemática desses índices sob o procedimento Aco. Os sujeitos reexpostos à Lag n mostraram recuperação dos altos índices de variação. Esses resultados sugerem que a variabilidade comportamental foi controlada pelo reforçamento negativo na contingência de esquiva proposta / This study aimed to investigate if variable patterns of responses can be acquired and maintained by intermittent negative reinforcement under a discrete-trial avoidance contingency. Six male Wistar rats were submitted to a lever-press response shaping session in an operant conditioning chamber with two levers (right, R, and left, L). Then, that response was negatively reinforced in a discrete-trial avoidance procedure in which a 0.5 s and 0.5 mA (average) shock (US) could occur after a light period (CS). Lever-press response emission during CS presentation turned off the CS, produced a 0.5 s and 10 Hz tone, canceled the next programmed US, and initiated a blackout period with no programmed contingency, after which a new CS was presented. Two hundred US were programmed per session. Initially, negative reinforcement occurred under FR 1 and FR 2 schedules (with levers alternation each 50 programmed US). Following, three response sequences were reinforced (with the two levers available). Reinforcement was contingent to behavioral variability, which was examined by comparing three-response sequences across R and L levers: RRR, LLR, RLR etc. Varying was reinforced according to a Lag contingency, in which only sequences that differed from n previous sequences avoided US (n was equal to 1, 2 or 3). After steady states were obtained in those contingencies, subjects were submitted to a yoke procedure, in which reinforcer distribution was yoked to the last Lag session, but without varying exigency. Some subjects were re-exposed to the Lag contingency after yoke procedure. Results showed that all the subjects avoided shocks and presented high levels of behavioral variability under the Lag contingency (measured by U value). During the yoke procedure, behavioral variability decreased systematically. Subjects that were re-exposed to the Lag contingency after yoke procedure recovered high levels of variation. These results suggest that behavioral variability was controlled by negative reinforcement under the proposed avoidance contingency

Reusability of assets within a family of products is the major goal of Software Product Line Engineering (SPLE), therefore managing variability is an important task in SPLs. Configuration management in the context of software product line engineering is more complicated than that in single systems engineering due to &rdquo / variability in space&rdquo / in addition to &rdquo / variability in time&rdquo / of core assets. In this study, a method for documenting variability in executable configuration items, namely components, is proposed by associating them with the Orthogonal Variability Model (OVM) which introduces variability as a separate model. The main aim is to trace variability in dierent configurations by explicitly documenting variability information for components. The links between OVM elements and components facilitate tool support for product derivation as the components matching the selected variations can be gathered by following the links. The proposed scheme is demonstrated on a case study about a radar GUI variability model.

The high incidence of pathogens is one of the main causes for impaired surface water quality designations in the United States. Pathogen presence in fresh water is monitored through the detection of indicator bacteria. Indicator bacteria concentrations, spatial and temporal variability, and microbial risks were evaluated in two rural watersheds, the Bosque and Leon Rivers, and one predominantly urban watershed, the San Jacinto River, all in Texas. Human health risk was predicted from contaminated waters as indicated by ingestion of Escherichia coli found in surface water for contact recreation scenarios. The watersheds were chosen because many segments were previously placed on the 303 (d) list (published by the TCEQ) for failing the indicator bacteria standards. Predominantly urban areas of the San Jacinto River and rural portions of the Bosque and Leon Rivers, where Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs) are numerous, were compared to relatively pristine rural watersheds. Spatial analysis of the watersheds with E.coli concentrations exceeding the single sample (394 MPN/100mL) and the geometric mean standards (126 MPN/100mL) indicated that land use is a significant factor influencing the incidence of bacterial concentrations. Non-agricultural rural areas of the watersheds, such as forests and rangelands, had significantly lower E.coli concentrations compared to the agricultural areas and urban land uses. Human health risk due to ingestion of E.coli as an indicator organism indicated a similar pattern to that of their concentrations in that urban and agricultural areas had a greater risk compared to the other rural areas of the watersheds. The risk estimate for urban and agricultural areas exceeded the acceptable limit of one in ten thousand (10^-4), indicating a potential for adverse health effects to humans. Temporal variability in the watersheds as a function of streamflow, rainfall, and temperature indicated a positive correlation between bacterial concentration and high streamflow, rainfall and temperature. The positive correlation for these effects was greater in the rural areas compared to urban areas, indicating the presence of multiple factors responsible for E.coli concentrations in urban areas. Thus, land use was confirmed to be a major factor contributing to the presence of indicator bacteria in surface waters.

Knowledge of the literature pertaining to patterns of performance in normal individuals is essential if we are to understand intraindividual variability in neurocognitive test performance in neuropsychiatric disorders. Twenty-five healthy individuals with a high-level of education were evaluated on a short neuropsychological battery which spanned several cognitive domains. ---Results indicated that cognitive abilities are not equally distributed within a sample of healthy, high-level functioning individuals. This may be of interest to neuropsychologists who might base clinical inference about the presence of cerebral dysfunction, at least in part, on marked variation in a patient’s level of cognitive test performance. The practice of deductive reasoning in clinical neuropsychology may be prone to false-positive conclusions about cognitive functioning in neuropsychiatric disorders where base-rates of cognitive impairments are low and pre-existing educational achievements are high.