South Africa is a net food exporter, however, scores of households in the rural and peri-urban and urban areas are food insecure. Some households in the peri-urban areas of uMngeni and Msunduzi Municipalities of KwaZulu-Natal have sought to alleviate their households from food insecurity through community gardens, which are widely promoted and used as a means to increase food supply. This study was centred on a livelihood based analysis of the contribution of community gardens to food security in Msunduzi and uMngeni Municipalities, KwaZulu-Natal. A survey was conducted among 46 participants and data was collected through the use of Livelihood- based Participatory Analysis (LiPA) tools. LiPA emerged as a tool for analysis with the development of sustainable livelihoods approach. Livelihood analysis made use of participatory methods to evaluate the following Framework of African Food Security indicators: improvement of risk management and resilience; increase in supply of affordable food; increase in economic opportunities for the vulnerable; and improvement in dietary diversity. Gardening helped to supply the participants with fresh produce, however, gardening did little to improve the participants risk management and economic opportunities. Drought, theft and insects were identified as the major factors limiting the success of community gardens. Despite the challenges, the community gardeners were indeed benefiting from community gardening therefore, further research could be carried out to compare food security among households involved in community gardening and those not involved. / Thesis (M.Sc.Agric.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2012.

A agricultura ocupa uma grande área do território brasileiro, interagindo com praticamente todos os grandes biomas. O manejo do solo, aliado ao uso de agrotóxicos e de fertilizantes, pode contribuir para o desequilíbrio da fauna edáfica, trazendo impactos que podem influenciar na harmonia do ecossistema do solo. O revolvimento do solo o expõe à radiação solar, que pode influenciar na abundância de espécies e os fertilizantes de base sintética desequilibram os níveis de nutrientes do solo, impactando na dinâmica dos organismos. Os agrotóxicos contaminam e causam mortalidade de diversos organismos. Na tentativa de melhor analisar esses impactos, foram escolhidos quatro diferentes sistemas de uso do solo: Olericultura Orgânica (OO), Olericultura Convencional (OC), Lavoura Convencional (LC) e uma região de fragmento de Floresta Nativa (FN), com repetições verdadeiras, na região metropolitana de Curitiba, no município de Quitandinha-PR, com os objetivos: avaliar o potencial dos enquitreídeos como bioindicadores em áreas de diferentes sistemas de uso do solo (SUS); identificar os fatores que influenciam a abundância e diversidade desses organismos nestes diferentes sistemas; avaliou-se o potencial reprodutivo destes organismos expondo-os em amostras de solos provenientes das áreas dos sistemas de uso do solo (SUS) estudados, em condições laboratoriais; foi também avaliado em ensaios laboratoriais com uso de solo artificial tropical (SAT) o impacto do glifosato na reprodução dos enquitreídeos sob concentrações baseadas nas recomendações do fabricante e das quantidades comumente utilizadas na região. Nossos resultados mostraram que houve diferença significativa na abundância entre FN e LC, e a riqueza de gêneros sofreu redução de seis para dois, respectivamente. Dentre os atributos do solo encontrados nas análises físico-químicas, as áreas de florestas (FN) apresentaram pH mais baixo, matéria orgânica e potássio mais altos que nos outros sistemas estudados, e menor quantidade de fósforo do que as áreas de plantio convencional (LC e OC). Os ensaios ecotoxicológicos em condições laboratoriais mostraram que o número de juvenis de Enchytraeus sp produzidos em solo das áreas estudadas foi maior em solo de FN do que LC, em concordância com os dados de abundância. Os ensaios ecotoxicológicos com glifosato em solo artificial tropical reduziu significativamente a reprodução, mesmo em concentrações no solo equivalentes a doses recomendadas, sugerindo que esse herbicida popular pode ser deletério aos enquitreídeos e, portanto, deve ser usado com cautela. Os resultados sugerem que a abundância e riqueza de enquitreídeos são bons indicadores do uso do solo na região estudada e que a espécie autóctone Enchytraeus sp respondeu satisfatoriamente em ensaios laboratoriais para avaliar a qualidade do solo. / Agriculture occupies a large area of the Brazilian territory, interacting with the major biomes. Soil management, the use of pesticides and fertilizers can contribute to the imbalance of the biota, the soil fauna, impacting the harmony of the whole soil ecosystem. The soil disturbance in plowing and disking exposes the soil fauna to the sun' radiation, which can be harmful to of species in this environment. Synthetic fertilizers can unbalance levels of soil nutrients, directly impacting the dynamics of organisms. The pesticides can be deleterious to the living organisms in the soil. This study aims to evaluate potential of the enchytraeids as soil management indicators in areas of horticulture and grain farming and to identify which factors influence the abundance and diversity of these worms in different land use systems (SUS); It also aims to assess the potential of the enchytraeids to respond to the natural soil quality of the areas of study and the toxicity of recommended doses of the most used pesticide (glyphosate) in laboratory tests; Four land use systems (SUS) in Quitandinha – PR were chosen for the present study: Organic Vegetable Crops (OO), Conventional Vegetable Crops (OC) and Conventional tillage (LC), Native Forest (FN) with true repetitions. The abundance of enchytraeids was statistically higher in FN than LC, while the richness of genera reduced from six to two, respectively. Among the soil attributes, forest areas had lower pH, organic matter, nitrogen and higher potassium than other SUS in the other SUS and lower amount of phosphorus than the areas of conventional tillage. In ecotoxicological tests under laboratory conditions the number of juveniles of Enchytraeus sp produced in soil of the areas studied for 21 days of incubation were higher in soils from FN than LC. in agreement to field abundance data. Ecotoxicological tests with gliphosate in concentrations based on doses used by the agricultures in the area sudied showed that in artficial soil, even concentrations equivalent to recommended doses may reduce reproduction significantly, suggesting this popular herbicide may be harmful to enchytraeids and should be used with caution. The results suggest the abundance and richness of genera are good indicators of soil use systems in the area studied and that the autochthonous enchytraeid Enchytraeus sp responded well to laboratory tests to evaluate soil quality.

Thesis (MTech (Physical Sciences))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2005. / A research study into heavy metals in the Cape Town area, found significant amounts of potentially toxic metals such as lead, cadmium, chromium and iron leaching into the underground aquifer. A further additional study conducted on a community garden in Khayelitsha, showed that vegetable crops have the tendency to accumulate certain heavy metals if they are present in soil and water resources. This study was centered around the Philippi Horticultural Area, which is a large significant farming area within the Cape Metropolitan Region. The significance of the study lies in the fact that at least 50% of the local farmers' produce is sold directly to street traders, residents, local supermarket-chains and restaurants. The remainder of the produce is sold at the Epping Market. The purpose of this study was to investigate heavy metal accumulation in various vegetable crop species taken from some of the local farms in the Phillipi Farming area with the objective to: • investigate heavy metal accumulation in various vegetable crop species taken from some local farms in the Phillipi Farming area. • determine the concentrations of heavy metals present in water and soil resource since these will be the primary source of heavy metals to the vegetables. • determine the soil pH and soil organic matter as these two factors would determine the bie-availability ofthe heavy metals. • identify those crops that pose a definite health risk by means of comparing the determined results to the allowed limits.

African leafy vegetables have been shown and suggested to have potential to contribute to human diets and alleviate malnutrition; however, their levels of utilisation are currently low especially in South Africa. This is because there is limited access to these crops due to low availability in the market. Limited access is attributed, in part, to the lack of commercialisation as a result of limited agronomic information describing optimum management options for these leafy vegetables. Availability of such information would contribute to successful commercialisation of these crops. The primary objective of this study was to establish optimum agronomic management factors for Amaranthus cruentus, Corchorus olitorius, Vigna unguiculata and Brassica juncea for irrigated commercial production in South Africa. Seeds of Amaranthus cruentus, Corchorus olitorius were obtained from the Agricultural Research Council seed bank; Vigna unguiculata were obtained from Hydrotech and Brassica juncea seeds were obtained from Stark Ayres. The project consisted of three field studies whose overall objective was to evaluate growth and yield responses of the selected African leafy vegetables to agronomic factors under irrigated commercial production. These field studies comprised of two single factors; summer trials (planting density and nitrogen on three selected crops) and a combined winter trial (nitrogen, irrigation, plant density and planting date on a winter crop). Chapter three (3) investigated the effect of plant density on growth, physiology and yield responses of Amaranthus cruentus, Corchorus olitorius and Vigna unguiculata to three plant densities under drip irrigated commercial production. The plant density levels of 100 000, 66 666 and 50 000 plants/ha were used in the 2011/12 and 2012/13 summer seasons. Parameters measured included chlorophyll content index (CCI), chlorophyll fluorescence (CF), stomatal conductance (SC), leaf number, leaf area index (LAI) and biomass. Amaranthus cruentus and Corchorus olitorius showed better leaf quality at lower plant density of 50 000 plants ha-1 than at 66 666 plants ha-1 and 100 000 plants ha-1. These results are based on bigger leaves expressed as leaf area index (LAI), better colour expressed as chlorophyll (CCI) and higher biomass per plant observed in these crops at 50 000 plants ha-1 in comparison to 66 666 plants ha-1 and 100 000 plants ha-1. In Vigna unguiculata there were no responses observed in LAI and CCI. In Amaranthus cruentus, Corchorus olitorius and Vigna unguiculata fresh and dry mass yield of leaves were higher at 100 000 plants ha-1 compared to other treatments. In A. cruentus and C. olitorius, higher leaf quality parameters (CCI, plant height, leaf number, biomass per plant and LAI) indicated that these crops can perform better at lower densities of 50 000 than at 66 666 plants ha-1 and 100 000 plants ha-1 Therefore, using 50 000 plants ha- 1 is suitable for commercial production of A. cruentus and C. olitorius. In Vigna unguiculata, a plant density of 100 000 plants ha-1 produced the highest fresh and dry mass per unit area without compromising quality in terms of the leaf size (LAI) and colour (CCI). Therefore 100 000 plants ha-1 is a density recommended for commercial production in V. unguiculata.Chapter four (4) was conducted to investigate growth, physiology and yield responses of A. cruentus, C. olitorius and V unguiculata to nitrogen application under drip irrigated commercial production. Three nitrogen treatments levels were used viz. 0, 44 and 88 kg N ha- 1 in 2011/12 season and four nitrogen treatments levels viz. 0, 50, 100 and 125 kg N ha-1 were used in 2012/13 summer season. The nitrogen levels selected for each season were based on recommendations for Amaranthaceae species, Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris L.var cicla) derived from soil analysis of the trial (field) site. Parameters measured included chlorophyll content index (CCI), chlorophyll fluorescence (CF), stomatal conductance (SC), leaf number, leaf area index (LAI) and biomass. Results showed that application of nitrogen at 44 kg N ha- 1 in 2011/12 summer season and 100 kg N ha-1 in 2012/13 summer season improved LAI, CCI, biomass per plants and yield in A. cruentus. A similar trend was observed in C. olitorius except that 44 kg N ha-1 improved stem fresh yield. Further increase in nitrogen fertiliser above 44 kg N ha-1 during the 2011/12 season and above 100 kg N ha-1 in 2012/13 summer season reduced leaf quality and yield in both crops. In V. unguiculata, nitrogen application showed a slight increase in yield values from 0 to 44 kg N ha-1 followed by decrease at 88 kg N ha-1 in 2011/12 summer season; however, this increase in yield was not significant. During the 2012/13 summer season, yield in terms of fresh weight was significantly (P<.001) reduced by applying nitrogen at various levels. However, leaf dry matter content increased significantly (P<.001) with increase in nitrogen from 0 kg up to 100 kg N ha-1, then remained unchanged at 125 kg N ha-1. Therefore, the current study recommends that C. olitorius and A. cruentus could be commercialised at 44 kg N ha-1 and 100 kg N ha-1 which were lower nitrogen application rates than those recommended for Amaranthaceae species. In V. unguiculata, 50 kg N ha-1 improved leaf number; however, this did not translate to any fresh yield advantage, implying that the optimum rate for nitrogen application might be lower than 50 kg N ha-1. Therefore, nitrogen rates less than the ones used in the current study are recommended for V. unguiculata. Chapter five (5) was conducted in winter and it was necessitated by observations made primarily in the previous studies which focused on the effects of single factors such as plant density, planting date and nitrogen deficits. Therefore, there was a need to address interactions between irrigation, nitrogen, spacing and planting date. The objective of this study was to evaluate growth, physiology and yield responses of Brassica juncea to different agronomic and management factors in the 2012 and 2013 seasons. The treatments were as follows: two planting dates in main plot (1 June and 18 July, 2012); two irrigation frequency in sub main plot (once and three times a week); three nitrogen levels (0, 50, 100 kg N ha-1) and three plant densities (133 333, 80 000, 50 000 plants ha-1) as subplots. Parameters measured included chlorophyll content index (CCI), chlorophyll fluorescence (CF), stomatal conductance (SC), leaf number, leaf area index (LAI) and biomass. Results from this study showed a significant interaction effect on plant height, LAI, CCI and CF. Crops irrigated thrice or once a week with 50 kg N ha-1 combined with 50 000 plants ha-1 produced tall plants and bigger leaves (LAI) in the early planting date (1 June) compared to other combinations. Irrigating three times a week combined with nitrogen application at 100 or 50 kg N ha-1 improved CF for late planting date (18 July) in comparison to other combinations. Irrigating once a week combined with nitrogen application at 100 kg N ha-1 increased CCI. There was no significant interaction effect on yield. Application of nitrogen at 50 and 100 kg N ha-1 significantly (P>0.05) increased yield in early and late planting dates compared to the control (0 kg N ha-1), in 2012 and 2013 winter season. Irrigating three times a week led to a significant (P<0.05) increase in yield in the late planting date (18th July) and early planting date (1st June) in 2013 season. Higher plant density of 133 333 plants ha-1 resulted in significantly (P<0.05) higher yield in terms of fresh mass and leaf number in the late planting date 18 July in 2012 and 2013 seasons. However, leaf quality parameters such as leaf size and colour was compromised at 133 333 plants ha-1 relative to 50 000 plants ha-1. Therefore, farmers are recommended to plant early, apply 50 kg N ha-1, irrigate thrice a week and utilise a spacing of 50 000 plants ha-1. The current study indicates that growth and yield of traditional leaf vegetables can be optimised through improved agronomic practise. / Agriculture and Life Sciences / D. Litt. et. Phil. (Agriculture)

Urban agriculture is a strategy poor urban, informal settlement residents adopt to reduce poverty and improve food security and child nutrition. It is widely asserted in the literature and development circles that household vegetable gardens can provide a significant percentage of recommended dietary allowances of macro- and micro-nutrients in the diets of pre-school children. These children are vulnerable in terms of food access and nutrition. The first five years of a child’s life are crucial to psychological well-being. This study set out to determine the impact of home gardens on access to food, dietary diversity and nutrient intake of pre-school children in an informal settlement in Eatonside, in the Vaal Region, Johannesburg, South Africa. The home gardening project was undertaken in five phases, namely the planning phase; a baseline survey (including quantitative food intake frequencies, 24-hour recall, individual dietary diversity questionnaires and anthropometric measurements); a training programme on home gardens; planting and tending the gardens and evaluating the impact of home gardens on access to food, dietary diversity and nutrient intake of pre-school children. Children aged two to five years (n=40) were selected to participate in the study. The sample population consisted of 22 boys and 18 girls. The children were categorised into three groups at the start of the project: children of 24-35 months (four boys and one girl), 36-47 months (four boys and five girls) and 48-60 months (14 boys and 12 girls). All but 10 per cent of the children’s consumption of foods in the food groups increased. At the start of the project, low consumption rates were observed for white tubers and roots, vitamin A-rich fruit, other fruit and fish. After the gardening project, the number of children consuming vegetables increased considerably. There was an increase in the intake of food groups over the period of the project. The number of children consuming vitamin A-rich increased the most, with all children (45 per cent improvement) consuming vitamin A-rich vegetables at the end of the project, compared with just over half at the start of the project. The consumption of vegetables increased with 78 per cent of the children consuming beans and 33 per cent beetroot. Most children (95 per cent) consumed cabbage, carrots and spinach post-home gardening. Seventy eight percent of children consumed beans by the end of the project, but only a third of the children had consumed beetroot during the post-project survey period. Intakes of all nutrients considered in the study improved by the end of the project, except for energy and calcium, which dropped marginally, but both remained at around 50 per cent below requirements. Twenty five percent of boys (24-35 months) were underweight and below the 50th percentile at the pre- and post-project stages. The same boys were severely stunted (on average -4.41 standard deviations below the third percentile). Of the boys aged 36-47 months, 25 per cent were stunted pre-project, but by the end of the project, this number had decreased to 50 per cent. Twenty one per cent of the older boys (48-60 months) were within their normal height for age. Twenty five per cent of girls were underweight (36-47 months). A slight change was observed in the 36-47 month group, where the mean changed from -0.14 standard deviations (below 50th percentile) pre-project to -0.5 (below 50th percentile) post-project. All girls aged 24-35 months were below -2 standard deviations pre-project. After the home gardening project, the figure dropped to 50 per cent. For girls aged 36-47 months, 25 per cent were below -3 standard deviations after the project, compared with 20 per cent pre-project. Height-for- age for girls aged 36-47 months dropped by 10 per cent below -2 standard deviation post-home gardening. Girls from 24 to 35 months were severely stunted [-3.02 (below 3rd percentile) pre- and -2.31 (below 5th percentile) post-project]. Stunting was observed in 36-47 months girls who had means of -2.39 (below 3rd percentile) and 1.86 (below 25th percentile) both pre-and post-gardening respectively and were at risk of malnutrition. The older girls were well nourished with means of height-for-age at -0.88 (below 50th percentile) pre-project and -0.92 (below 50th percentile) post-project. Home-gardening improved food access, dietary diversity, energy, protein, carbohydrate, fat, fibre, vitamin A and iron intakes, but did not make a significant impact on the malnutrition of the children in the project or ensure adequate intakes. Home gardens had a positive impact on height-for-age scores; but had no significant impact on mean weight-for-age and height-for-weight z-scores of the pre-school children. Increases in carbohydrate and fat intakes were shown to have the only significant impact on the children’s nutritional status and only with regard to improving height-for-age scores. The results show that the gardens did not have the expected impact on children’s nutrition, but confirm that increases in incomes from gardening are likely to have a greater impact through savings from consuming produce grown and selling produce to buy energy-dense foods for the children. This needs to be considered in nutrition interventions. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

This study explores the perceptions of the value of community gardens by members and the relationship between this activity and homestead farming activities in Ogagwini, Umbumbulu District, KwaZulu-Natal. Establishing and supporting community gardens is consistent with the strategies adopted by South African national and provincial government to alleviate poverty, address food security and improve livelihoods for rural people. However, there is a lack of literature available on why rural people choose to involve themselves in community garden projects and whether these reasons are those intended by policy makers. There is abundant research on community gardening – most of it either urban or not specific as to setting. This literature is useful for the generic information it provides, but does not provide the scope of understanding that is unique to rural community gardening in South Africa. Thus this study contributes to understanding rural community gardens and possible adjustments needed by extension workers and development strategies to ensure effective food gardening practices in rural KwaZulu-Natal. The first extension facilitated community garden activities in Ogagwini were established in 1993 with the support of the provincial DAEA. Some community garden members are also members of the Ezemvelo Farmers Organisation (EFO), a group of farmers engaged in commercial small-scale farming. This research attempted to find out how community gardening activities were related to small-scale commercial homestead activities. Specifically, the study sought to investigate issues such as preferences among farmers between community gardens and homestead farming; the social and economic benefits derived from community gardens; and perceptions around environmental/ecological issues surrounding community gardens and homestead farming. A survey questionnaire on community garden activities and perceptions was given to EFO members and used to identify participants for this study. Committee members of the EFO (also members of community gardens) arranged for five gardens to be investigated. In-depth data was collected at the actual garden sites using semi-structured focus group discussions and participant observation. The data from the survey questionnaire was verified and clarified by semi structured probing during these discussions. A spiral approach was used to organise responses and make sense of the data within social, economic, and environmental themes. After three garden visits, no new knowledge was forthcoming and due to time constraints the study was limited to these three groups. The study found that there were no distinct linkages between homestead farms and community gardens, but that the systems operated on different principles. Community gardens were used to produce cabbages, carrots, beetroot, onions, green peppers and spinach mainly for consumption, whereas homestead farms produce field crops such as maize, amadumbes (taro), sweet potato, potatoes, pumpkins and peanuts. The study further identified social and economic benefits and environmental impacts and reinforces the importance of knowledge sharing amongst participants. The main benefits identified were income generation, sharing of knowledge and technical support The Department of Agriculture should carefully address sustainability issues when planning and implementing community gardens. This would include being able to carry on in the absence of an agricultural extension officer. Training programmes need to ensure that learning is transferable; that it is not overly commodity or technology specific and includes promotion of environmental awareness. This study has highlighted a number of potentially valuable issues for further situated research in the area of farming protocols, markets and the social value of community gardening within rural communities.

Crop production is widely promoted as a solution to food insecurity, but its real impact on household food security has not been measured in South Africa. Small-scale production is a common practice for many rural poor households of South Africa. While agriculture may play a major role in reducing food insecurity, agricultural growth alone cannot solve the problem of food insecurity at household level. South Africa is food secure at the national level, but available data suggest that between 58.5 and 73 percent of South African households experience food insecurity. This study set out to measure the impact of crop production on household food security among sampled households in two communal regions, Umbumbulu and Maphephetheni, of KwaZulu-Natal, to establish whether participation in food production improved household food security. Household surveys which explored the types of crops produced, food consumed, income obtained from crop sales and the food security situation, were carried out at Umbumbulu and Maphephetheni respectively (n = 200 and n = 68). The types of crops produced were investigated using crop production seasonality charts, while the household food security situation was measured using the Coping Strategy Index tool. The main findings of the study indicated that household gardens provided food for household members, but did not provide sufficient quantities to meet year-round consumption requirements. Most sampled households relied largely on purchased foods. More than 80% of the food consumed by households came from purchases, 4% and 13% came from own production in Umbumbulu and Maphephetheni respectively. Among the households surveyed, 58% and 89% were below the poverty line for Umbumbulu and Maphephetheni respectively. Umbumbulu and Maphephetheni’s largest household income contributions came from wages or salaries. Social grants were the second most important source of household income. As participation in crop production alleviated food shortages somewhat, its contribution to food security cannot be ignored. A study needs to be conducted to investigate whether participation in both farm/non farm activities reduces the number of households below the poverty line. Government should provide extension officers to monitor and evaluate the impact of gardens on household food security. To guide the design and implementation of commercial and home gardens, households need to develop clear and consistent policies, strategies, processes and procedures, and (a sound) monitoring and evaluation framework. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.

This study provides feedback from the Extension Officers and community garden members involved in community garden projects of the KwaZulu-Natal Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs, by investigating the contribution of community gardens to household food security. The investigation included interviews with 61 Extension Officers from the Bergville, Hlanganani, Eshowe, Vryheid and Mbumbulu districts and 106 community garden members from 31 community gardens in the Bergville and Hlanganani districts. It was found that the people involved in community gardens were older persons, with little or no education. Those involved in community gardens were unemployed and relied on pensions, remittances and selling handicrafts to purchase garden inputs. The average household dependency ratios were 4, 5 and 5, 5 persons per active household member in Hlanganani and Bergville, respectively. Community garden members were mostly females, but most community garden members’ households were male-headed. The community garden members indicated that the most important reason for producing vegetables was for household use. Extension Officers were not satisfied with the state of community gardens and the relationship between the regional and district offices. Community gardens do not reflect the effort put in by the Extension Officers. The Extension Officers want to be involved in determining research priorities and be regularly informed about research findings and policy changes made at the regional level. The Extension Officers would like to see all government departments working together towards the development of communities. Extension Officers believe that if the government departments pool their resources, they would be able to serve the communities better than when each department works alone on community garden projects in the same community. Despite the initial funding of community gardens by the KwaZulu-Natal Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs, there were many factors limiting production of vegetables in community gardens. The limiting factors included poor soil fertility; small garden plot sizes; low water availability; high start-up costs and poor management of the community garden finances. The community garden members were positive about the contribution of community gardens to their lives. The benefits were in the form of information about vegetable production, cropping practices and the availability of fresh vegetables that provided nutritious food and allowed them to buy other household requirements instead of vegetables. Community garden projects have a potential role to play in the lives of many rural people if the following concerns raised by the Extension Officers are addressed: the relationship between the offices at district level and the regional level improves; the establishment and maintenance of sound channels of communication between the district field staff and the regions; research support is received from the regions; and government departments work together. The KwaZulu-Natal Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs should not only focus on providing infrastructure for projects but should also ascertain that the proposed project achieves the objectives of both the community garden members and the Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs and that the beneficiaries are trained before the project is handed over. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008.

African leafy vegetables have been shown and suggested to have potential to contribute to human diets and alleviate malnutrition; however, their levels of utilisation are currently low especially in South Africa. This is because there is limited access to these crops due to low availability in the market. Limited access is attributed, in part, to the lack of commercialisation as a result of limited agronomic information describing optimum management options for these leafy vegetables. Availability of such information would contribute to successful commercialisation of these crops. The primary objective of this study was to establish optimum agronomic management factors for Amaranthus cruentus, Corchorus olitorius, Vigna unguiculata and Brassica juncea for irrigated commercial production in South Africa. Seeds of Amaranthus cruentus, Corchorus olitorius were obtained from the Agricultural Research Council seed bank; Vigna unguiculata were obtained from Hydrotech and Brassica juncea seeds were obtained from Stark Ayres. The project consisted of three field studies whose overall objective was to evaluate growth and yield responses of the selected African leafy vegetables to agronomic factors under irrigated commercial production. These field studies comprised of two single factors; summer trials (planting density and nitrogen on three selected crops) and a combined winter trial (nitrogen, irrigation, plant density and planting date on a winter crop). Chapter three (3) investigated the effect of plant density on growth, physiology and yield responses of Amaranthus cruentus, Corchorus olitorius and Vigna unguiculata to three plant densities under drip irrigated commercial production. The plant density levels of 100 000, 66 666 and 50 000 plants/ha were used in the 2011/12 and 2012/13 summer seasons. Parameters measured included chlorophyll content index (CCI), chlorophyll fluorescence (CF), stomatal conductance (SC), leaf number, leaf area index (LAI) and biomass. Amaranthus cruentus and Corchorus olitorius showed better leaf quality at lower plant density of 50 000 plants ha-1 than at 66 666 plants ha-1 and 100 000 plants ha-1. These results are based on bigger leaves expressed as leaf area index (LAI), better colour expressed as chlorophyll (CCI) and higher biomass per plant observed in these crops at 50 000 plants ha-1 in comparison to 66 666 plants ha-1 and 100 000 plants ha-1. In Vigna unguiculata there were no responses observed in LAI and CCI. In Amaranthus cruentus, Corchorus olitorius and Vigna unguiculata fresh and dry mass yield of leaves were higher at 100 000 plants ha-1 compared to other treatments. In A. cruentus and C. olitorius, higher leaf quality parameters (CCI, plant height, leaf number, biomass per plant and LAI) indicated that these crops can perform better at lower densities of 50 000 than at 66 666 plants ha-1 and 100 000 plants ha-1 Therefore, using 50 000 plants ha- 1 is suitable for commercial production of A. cruentus and C. olitorius. In Vigna unguiculata, a plant density of 100 000 plants ha-1 produced the highest fresh and dry mass per unit area without compromising quality in terms of the leaf size (LAI) and colour (CCI). Therefore 100 000 plants ha-1 is a density recommended for commercial production in V. unguiculata.Chapter four (4) was conducted to investigate growth, physiology and yield responses of A. cruentus, C. olitorius and V unguiculata to nitrogen application under drip irrigated commercial production. Three nitrogen treatments levels were used viz. 0, 44 and 88 kg N ha- 1 in 2011/12 season and four nitrogen treatments levels viz. 0, 50, 100 and 125 kg N ha-1 were used in 2012/13 summer season. The nitrogen levels selected for each season were based on recommendations for Amaranthaceae species, Swiss chard (Beta vulgaris L.var cicla) derived from soil analysis of the trial (field) site. Parameters measured included chlorophyll content index (CCI), chlorophyll fluorescence (CF), stomatal conductance (SC), leaf number, leaf area index (LAI) and biomass. Results showed that application of nitrogen at 44 kg N ha- 1 in 2011/12 summer season and 100 kg N ha-1 in 2012/13 summer season improved LAI, CCI, biomass per plants and yield in A. cruentus. A similar trend was observed in C. olitorius except that 44 kg N ha-1 improved stem fresh yield. Further increase in nitrogen fertiliser above 44 kg N ha-1 during the 2011/12 season and above 100 kg N ha-1 in 2012/13 summer season reduced leaf quality and yield in both crops. In V. unguiculata, nitrogen application showed a slight increase in yield values from 0 to 44 kg N ha-1 followed by decrease at 88 kg N ha-1 in 2011/12 summer season; however, this increase in yield was not significant. During the 2012/13 summer season, yield in terms of fresh weight was significantly (P<.001) reduced by applying nitrogen at various levels. However, leaf dry matter content increased significantly (P<.001) with increase in nitrogen from 0 kg up to 100 kg N ha-1, then remained unchanged at 125 kg N ha-1. Therefore, the current study recommends that C. olitorius and A. cruentus could be commercialised at 44 kg N ha-1 and 100 kg N ha-1 which were lower nitrogen application rates than those recommended for Amaranthaceae species. In V. unguiculata, 50 kg N ha-1 improved leaf number; however, this did not translate to any fresh yield advantage, implying that the optimum rate for nitrogen application might be lower than 50 kg N ha-1. Therefore, nitrogen rates less than the ones used in the current study are recommended for V. unguiculata. Chapter five (5) was conducted in winter and it was necessitated by observations made primarily in the previous studies which focused on the effects of single factors such as plant density, planting date and nitrogen deficits. Therefore, there was a need to address interactions between irrigation, nitrogen, spacing and planting date. The objective of this study was to evaluate growth, physiology and yield responses of Brassica juncea to different agronomic and management factors in the 2012 and 2013 seasons. The treatments were as follows: two planting dates in main plot (1 June and 18 July, 2012); two irrigation frequency in sub main plot (once and three times a week); three nitrogen levels (0, 50, 100 kg N ha-1) and three plant densities (133 333, 80 000, 50 000 plants ha-1) as subplots. Parameters measured included chlorophyll content index (CCI), chlorophyll fluorescence (CF), stomatal conductance (SC), leaf number, leaf area index (LAI) and biomass. Results from this study showed a significant interaction effect on plant height, LAI, CCI and CF. Crops irrigated thrice or once a week with 50 kg N ha-1 combined with 50 000 plants ha-1 produced tall plants and bigger leaves (LAI) in the early planting date (1 June) compared to other combinations. Irrigating three times a week combined with nitrogen application at 100 or 50 kg N ha-1 improved CF for late planting date (18 July) in comparison to other combinations. Irrigating once a week combined with nitrogen application at 100 kg N ha-1 increased CCI. There was no significant interaction effect on yield. Application of nitrogen at 50 and 100 kg N ha-1 significantly (P>0.05) increased yield in early and late planting dates compared to the control (0 kg N ha-1), in 2012 and 2013 winter season. Irrigating three times a week led to a significant (P<0.05) increase in yield in the late planting date (18th July) and early planting date (1st June) in 2013 season. Higher plant density of 133 333 plants ha-1 resulted in significantly (P<0.05) higher yield in terms of fresh mass and leaf number in the late planting date 18 July in 2012 and 2013 seasons. However, leaf quality parameters such as leaf size and colour was compromised at 133 333 plants ha-1 relative to 50 000 plants ha-1. Therefore, farmers are recommended to plant early, apply 50 kg N ha-1, irrigate thrice a week and utilise a spacing of 50 000 plants ha-1. The current study indicates that growth and yield of traditional leaf vegetables can be optimised through improved agronomic practise. / Agriculture and Life Sciences / D. Litt. et. Phil. (Agriculture)

M.A. / In the former Republic of Venda, many people lost their jobs when industries that had mushroomed during the 1980's pulled out of the area. This happened just prior to the collapse of the Bantustan government. The most affected were women who, because of lack of education, could not get employment within and outside of the province. As a way of alleviating poverty, people resorted to selfemployment and community development projects. Different community development projects were started throughout Venda. Some non-governmental organisations (NGOs) helped women who were unemployed by giving them training and help them to start projects such as sewing, knitting, chicken farming, creches and small-scale gardening. The training of people in different skills was done as a way of helping to equip communities so that they may start projects that they could manage, and that could become selfsustainable. The new South African government, through its Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), also assisted the poverty-stricken rural areas to start generating projects that would generate jobs for the people. These programmes involved the communities, the NGOs and the government through the RDP. Short and long term projects that were considered suitable by the members and community developers in the different areas were started. In order to maintain the smooth running and the co-ordination of all their projects, many communities instituted Community Development Committees (CDC). The CDC was an umbrella body within a community whose members had been elected by the community itself. The main task of the CDC was to help the different `Community Development Project' (CDP) committees responsible for the different projects within the community to obtain funds from different sources. They also helped to organise training for interested project members. In most cases, they worked hand in hand with the civic association committees and the traditional leaders, as well as the community members themselves. In this study, I have compared the activities of the community gardening projects within two rural communities. These two gardening projects are at Mangondi and Tshisahulu rural areas in Venda within the Northern Province. In their attempts to fight unemployment and poverty, these two communities (like many other communities within the Province and Venda in particular) embarked on the establishment of several community development projects, gardening being one of them. Most of the gardeners in these two projects are women. These women vary in age, education and family situations. The aim of this study was to establish the problems facing rural women in their attempts to free themselves from the grip of poverty and unemployment that continues to render them marginalised. The provision of government policy on the problem of women's rights on land ownership was also examined. The method of research used in the collection of data during field work was the interview method. This method was most preferred because it allowed me an opportunity to ask questions directly to these gardeners most of whom cannot read or write. A literature study was done on the role and activities of women in small gardening projects and the development process. It is my wish that this work be of assistance to the development workers and the policy-makers as well as the RDP officers of the Northern Province under which this area falls.