South African society has been a ected either directly or indirectly by some degree of trauma. Therefore the presence of a trauma unit within a hospital created the ideal opportunity for novice trauma counsellors to have practical experience. The present research is an exploratory study, designed in accordance with ethno- graphic principles in order to understand the psychological e ects of trauma on novice trauma counsellors. It focuses on themes that reverberate throughout the participants narratives. Vicarious trauma and compassion fatigue are two such e ects that were explored in this study. Research into compassion fatigue and vi- carious trauma span over several decades and researchers have moved from merely describing the symptoms of secondary traumatic stress to explaining it in terms of models that highlight the role of various factors that contribute vicarious trauma or compassion fatigue. This study concludes with recommendations to counter the e ects of experiencing secondary trauma. / (M.A. (Clinical Psychology))

This thesis examines and compares the effectiveness of direct and indirect types of contact in leading to short- or longer-term prejudice-reducing outcomes in Cyprus. Chapter 1 provides a background to the relations between Greek and Turkish Cypriots and Chapter 2 provides a theoretical introduction to the intergroup contact hypothesis (Allport, 1954) and to extended friendships (Wright, Aron, McLaughlin-Volpe, & Ropp, 1997), vicarious contact (Mazziotta, Mummendey, & Wright, 2011), and imagined contact (Crisp & Turner, 2009) which have been suggested to be alternatives and a stepping stone to direct contact when the latter is absent. Chapter 3 consists of three experiments assessing the relative effects of direct and vicarious contact (Experiments 1 and 2) and imagined contact (Experiment 3). The results show that direct, and to a weaker extent, vicarious contact lead to more positive outgroup attitudes, but that a week after contact this effect is lost. All types of contact yield less anxiety, an effect that endures in time, and direct and imagined contact yield more positive action tendencies, an effect that remains significant in time only for direct contact. Chapter 4 consists of two experiments further exploring the capacity of imagined contact to yield positive intergroup outcomes. Experiment 4 tests whether the induction of interpersonal and intergroup similarities and/or differences into a positive imagined contact scenario affects participants evaluation of the outgroup. The results show, in line with the Optimal Distinctiveness Theory (Brewer, 1971), that ‘balanced similarity’ which incorporates both similarities and differences yields more positive outgroup attitudes than the conditions focusing only on similarities or only on differences. Experiment 5 compares ‘balanced similarity’ with positive imagined contact and finds that only the former affects variables related to preparing individuals for future contact. Chapter 5 consists of a three-wave longitudinal study examining the temporal effects of direct and extended friendships on outgroup attitudes and their mediation. Both types of friendships yield a significant indirect effect on attitudes which is stronger for direct friendships and is mediated by intergroup anxiety for both types of friendships and also by ingroup norms for direct friendships. Chapter 6 presents and discusses the key findings, outlines the limitations of these studies, and suggests avenues for future research.

<p>After rigorous criticism on trait approach and with the emergence of behavioral approach in entrepreneurship during 1980s, the researchers started to introduce learning and cognitive theories in entrepreneurship to describe and explain the dynamic nature of entrepreneurship. Many researchers have described venture creation as a core and the single most important element of entrepreneurship. This thesis will discuss and present the role of entrepreneurial learning and heuristics in venture creation. Hence, the purpose of this research thesis is to study and analyze the role of entrepreneurial learning and heuristics in venture creation.</p><p>To fulfill the purpose of this thesis, we followed qualitative research and conducted semi structured interviews with open ended questionnaires to collect empirical data. For this study, we have included only four interviews which were conducted on four different businesses based in Jönköping, Sweden, following convenience sampling. In the analysis, we used data analysis model of Walker, Cooke and McAllister (2008) and inductively generated three propositions, depicting the role and importance of entrepreneurial learning and heuristics in venture creation.</p><p>Individuals adopt entrepreneurship in their careers with necessary skills, abilities, and knowledge, which are learned or gained through experiential learning and/or vicarious learning (i.e., learning by observing or modeling the actions of others). Learning by doing is considered the most important factor by entrepreneurs which helped them to overcome different business start up hurdles, to make various entrepreneurial decisions and to perform many entrepreneurial activities during venture creation. Similarly, individuals within their own situation use, learning by observing or modeling other people’s behaviour, actions and consequences of the actions. Entrepreneurs use learning by modeling the behaviour and actions of others as benchmarking strategy during venture creation. Entrepreneurs believe that without any learning they will not be able to start their own businesses. Heuristics as decisions making mechanism, particularly during venture creation, is used by entrepreneurs as simplifying strategy when sufficient information related to a specific market, certain industry and products are scarce. Additionally, entrepreneurs are passionate to grab profitable business opportunity, and due to time pressure and brief window of opportunity, they can’t go for gathering each and every information of the potential business or product. Hence, heuristics as decisions making mechanism is considered the best suitable approach to make many entrepreneurial decisions during venture creation.</p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p><p> </p>

Background: Community interpreters are employed to work across multiple settings in the UK, including mental health services, to support individuals whose first language is not English. To date, little research attention has been paid to the emotional impact of mental health interpreting on community interpreters. Aims: The aim of this study is to develop an in-depth understanding of the emotional challenges of mental health interpreting and the coping strategies employed by community interpreters to overcome these challenges. It is hoped that this research will raise practitioners’ awareness and help guide health services to support interpreters better, to enable the highest standards of care for clients. Methodology: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight community interpreters working in mental health settings. The interview transcripts were analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). Results: Four master themes emerged from analysis: ‘Feeling for the client’, ‘Relationships in Context’, ‘Balancing the personal self and the professional self’ and ‘You need to protect yourself’. These master themes, along with the subthemes contributing to them, are expanded in to a narrative account of interpreters’ experiences. Conclusions: This study has underscored the need for increased provision of support for interpreters, as well as training for practitioners in working with interpreters. Guidance for improved working relationships between interpreters, practitioners and employing agencies is given.

Some sections of the appendices are not available in the electronic copy of this thesis due to their format. The full version is available for consultation at the University of Leicester Library.

Vicarious traumatisation (VT) has been defined as an experience of change in several domains of personhood including worldview, identity, and beliefs related to major psychological needs. Self-care practice is widely considered essential in sustaining personal and professional well-being, and a lack of appropriate practice can enhance the risk of VT in trainee and newly qualified therapeutic practitioners. Both quantitative and qualitative research suggests that mindfulness practice can have a protective role in the risk of VT for trainees. This study examined the relationship between VT, self-care and mindfulness in a sample of 238 trainee therapists from the UK, Australia, Canada and Ireland. Structural equation modelling was used to test a mediation model with good fit with self-care as predictor variable, mindfulness as mediator, and VT as outcome variable. The hypothesis that when controlling for the effects of mindfulness on VT the effect of self-care on VT is no longer significant could not be confirmed as no mediational effect was present. The hypothesis that predicted a negative association between self-care practice and VT was confirmed with a significant total effect although the direct effect of self-care on VT was not significant. Findings are discussed in relation to previous research involving mindfulness in trainee cohorts. Links are made with neuroscience research to consider underlying mechanisms of mindfulness within the context of VT.

Stellvertretung represents a consistent and central hermeneutic for Bonhoeffer. This thesis demonstrates that, in contrast to other translations, a more precise interpretation of Bonhoeffer's use of Stellvertretung would be 'vicarious suffering'. For Bonhoeffer Stellvertretung as 'vicarious suffering' illuminates not only the action of God in Christ for the sins of the world, but also Christian discipleship as participation in Christ's suffering for others; to be as Christ: Schuldübernahme. In this understanding of Stellvertretung as vicarious suffering Bonhoeffer demonstrates independence from his Protestant (Lutheran) heritage and reflects an interpretation that bears comparison with broader ecumenical understanding. This study of Bonhoeffer's writings draws attention to Bonhoeffer's critical affection towards Catholicism and highlights the theological importance of vicarious suffering during a period of renewal in Catholic theology, popular piety and fictional literature. Although Bonhoeffer references fictional literature in his writings, and indicates its importance in ethical and theological discussion, there has been little attempt to analyse or consider its contribution to Bonhoeffer's theology. This thesis fills this lacuna in its consideration of the reception by Bonhoeffer of the writings of Georges Bernanos, Reinhold Schneider and Fyodor Dostoevsky. Each of these writers features vicarious suffering, or its conceptual equivalent, as an important motif. According to Bonhoeffer Christian discipleship is the action of vicarious suffering (Stellvertretung) and of Verantwortung (responsibility) in love for others and of taking upon oneself the Schuld that burdens the world.

Social workers in child protective services often handle hundreds of cases regarding children traumatized by abuse and/or neglect. In time, social workers' experiences can become emotionally and psychologically challenging. A problem for supervising child protection social workers (SCPSWs) is that they might experience the same challenges; however, there was no research that described the lived experiences of SCPSWs. This phenomenological study explored the lived experiences of SCPSWs. Conceptually, constructivist self-development theory (CSDT) provided the framework for understanding how SCPSWs managed their lived experiences and the issues related to them. Ten SCPSWs volunteered their time for face-to-face interviews and provided data for this study. Saldana's coding manual was used to guide the identification and coding of key words and phrases. SCPSWs experienced occupational trauma in the form of vicarious trauma, compassion fatigue, secondary traumatic stress, and/or burnout similar to that experienced by front line workers. SCPSWs' experiences required them to set boundaries, stop taking work home and support each other in the workplace. Enhanced resources for training on self-care plus increased administrative and peer support could potentially improve the lives of these SCPSWs and increase their longevity and effectiveness in the workplace. Retaining experienced supervisors also has the potential to promote positive social change by improving the support supervisors can provide to front line staff, thus indirectly helping children, families, and communities they serve.

Most youth receiving care in residential treatment centers (RTCs) have experienced significant childhood trauma and require intensive mental health treatment to recover from their traumatic childhood experiences. Staff turnover is one factor that can negatively affect outcomes for these children and adolescents. Understanding factors that predict the turnover of professional counselors providing counseling to youth in RTCs can help counselors, supervisors, and counselor educators address barriers to staff retention. The purpose of this quantitative cross-sectional study was to explore the relationship between the turnover of professional counselors providing counseling to youth in RTCs and their perception of the work environment, burnout, vicarious trauma, and self-care. The theoretical framework for this study was constructivist self-development theory, which described the impact of working with traumatized youth in RTCs. Professional counselors working in RTCs for youth across the United States received an online survey to measure the study variables and obtain data for the study. Results of the multiple regression data analysis indicated that the combination of perception of work environment, burnout, vicarious trauma, and self-care predicted counselor turnover. Independently, perception of work environment, burnout, and self-care also predicted turnover. This information may help to increase counselor retention in residential treatment centers and improve outcomes for the vulnerable youth receiving care in those settings. This research will contribute to positive social change by improving the quality of life for this marginalized population of youth and decreasing the long-term social and financial burden placed on the community at large.

Vicarious trauma can impact anyone working with a traumatized person. The constructivist self-development theory asserts that vicarious trauma can negatively distort how the helper thinks about the world and can cause increased stress. Researchers have explored stress and coping models and have studied how increased stress can negatively impact coping and health behaviors. However, researchers have not explored how vicarious trauma, coping, and health behaviors are related. The purpose of this correlational study was to examine the relationships among vicarious trauma, health behaviors (healthy eating, physical activity, cigarette smoking, and risky drinking), and maladaptive coping. The study sample consisted of 102 Texas Children's Advocacy Center (TX CAC) and Texas Child Protective Services (TX CPS) employees with direct exposure to a client's trauma. Participants completed a self-administered online survey designed to measure vicarious trauma, health behaviors, and maladaptive coping. Linear and logistic regression analyses indicated vicarious trauma was significantly related to healthy eating and maladaptive coping. Maladaptive coping was significantly related to physical activity. However, maladaptive coping was not a significant mediating factor in the relationship between vicarious trauma and health behavior. The data indicated TX CPS and TX CAC employees continue to experience cognitive distortions associated with vicarious trauma, have some decreased health behaviors, and are using maladaptive coping strategies. Results of the study may be used to reduce the risk of vicarious trauma to TX CAC and TX CPS employees so they can continue to help children and families heal from trauma.