Superoxide dismutases (SODs) catalyze the dismutation of superoxide radicals to oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. Mn SOD is localized in mitochondria, Cu-Zn SOD is in the cytosol and chloroplast, and Fe SOD is in chloroplasts. The effects of a chloroplast-localized oxidative stress, caused by methyl viologen or 3-(3, 4-dichlorphenyl)-1-1′ dimethylurea (DCMU) on SOD populations were investigated. A cloned Arabidopsis thaliana Fe SOD gene was expressed in Escherichia coli and was purified from transformed cells. This protein was used to raise antibodies against A. thaliana Fe SOD which in turn were used to quantify the effects of oxidative stress on Fe SOD protein. Effects of oxidative stress on enzyme activity were measured in native gels. Fe SOD responded to oxidative stress with an increase in activity, but not in antibody reactive protein. Two novel forms of Fe SOD activity, with faster migration rates in activity gels, were detected. Mn SOD, a mitochondrial enzyme, responded to the stress with an increase in activity. In contrast, the activity or amount of Cu-Zn SOD protein did not respond to this oxidative stress. In light of these results, we propose that SODs respond to oxidative stress at the enzyme and gene levels. Mitochondrial Mn SOD responded to a chloroplast-localized stress with an increase in activity, suggesting either that the site of action for methyl viologen is not exclusively in the chloroplast or that there are other signals among the compartments of the cell. Fe SOD, but not Cu-Zn SOD responded to stress, suggesting that Fe SOD may be the stress responsive enzyme in this organelle. Evolutionary relationships among different isoforms were investigated based on the known primary, secondary, and tertiary structures of these isoforms. The three dimensional structure of A. thaliana Fe SOD was modeled by using structures of crystallized E. coli and Pseudomonas ovalis Fe SODs as templates. Comparison of prokaryotic Fe SOD with eukaryotic isoforms showed that Fe and Mn SODs are structurally homologous, whereas Cu Zn SOD is not. / Ph. D.

Líquidos iônicos (LI) e Poli(líquidos íonicos) (PLI) apresentam propriedades moduláveis extremamente interessantes, devido a possibilidade de infinitas combinações entre cátions e ânions, além da possibilidade de funcionalização tanto do cátion quanto do ânion para a inserção de propriedades de interesse, transformando esses LI e PLI em materiais de tarefa específica (task-LI e task-PLI). Nesta tese de doutorado, um PLI sólido, eletrocrômico e inédito foi sintetizado a partir de um LI funcionalizável e polimerizável (brometo de 1-cloropropil-3-vinilimidazólio) e o viologênio 4,4-bipiridina. Essa reação resultou em um monômero que teve sua estrutura intensamente elucidada e, em seguida, foi polimerizado, formando um polieletrólito sólido eletrocrômico estável mecanicamente e termicamente (309 °C). Os estudos espectroeletroquímicos a partir de um filme fino depositado sobre ITO revelaram um processo redox reversível com redução e oxidação nos potenciais de -0.45 e -0,3 V, respectivamente. O processo redox foi acompanhado por variação de coloração de transparente (estado totalmente oxidado) para roxo (estado reduzido/cátion radical) com contraste ótico de 19 % (525 nm), switching time de 20 s e eficiência da coloração (CE) de 60 cm2 C-1. A estabilidade eletroquímica do filme foi estudada via cronoamperometria e o material permaneceu eletroativo e eletrocrômico por 4 horas e 400 ciclos sem perdas consideráveis de eletroatividade. Além disso, mesmo após 16 h e 1600 ciclos o material apresentou eletroatividade com um decréscimo pequeno de corrente e variação de transmitância. Adicionalmente, o monitoramento do material com uma microbalança a cristal de quartzo com dissipação (QCM-D) indicaram que a compensação de carga do polímero é acompanhada por uma considerável variação de viscoelasticidade do filme e a principal espécie responsável pela compensação é o ânion, sendo o ânion volumoso [Tf2N] incapaz de compensar a carga do sistema impedindo o processo redox de ocorrer. Ainda com relação a capacidade de funcionalização dos LI, um LI inédito foi preparado a partir de um segundo LI funcionalizável (brometo de 1-cloropropil-1-metilpirrolidíneo) que foi elucidado por diversas técnicas incluindo ressonância magnética nuclear em duas dimensões de 1H, 13C e 15N (RMN 2D: COSY, NOESY, HSQC e HMBC) e RMN 15N. Dessa forma, um LI funcionalizado com aza-éter de coroa (LIcoroa) foi preparado a partir da reação do LI funcionalizável e o aza-18-coroa-6 e, novamente, a estrutura foi elucidada, incluindo RMN 2D. O LIcoroa apresentou boa estabilidade térmica (371 °C) e eletroquímica (janela de 4 V). A densidade do LI foi obtida no valor de 1,5 g cm-3 (25 °C). No entanto, a viscosidade do LI foi elevada afetando diretamente sua condutividade elétrica quando comparado com o LI bis(trifluorosulfonil)imida de 1-bultil-1-metilpirrolidíneo já amplamente estudado na literatura. Para aplicações, este LI coroa está sendo estudado para atuar como eletrólito em baterias de íon lítio devido a sua possível capacidade de complexar com este íon e diminuir a interação do Li+ com os oxigênios da espécie aniônica [Tf2N]. / Ionic Liquids (ILs) and poly(Ionic Liquids) (PoILs) have fully tunable properties due to their different ion combinations as well as cation or anion functionalization, which results in smart materials with endless possibilities. In this study, a solid electrochromic PoIL was synthesized using a novel functionalizable and polymerizable IL (1-propyl-3-vinylimidazolium chloride bromide) and a viologen (4,4\'-bipyridine) that reacted to form a monomer. Its subsequent polymerization resulted in a mechanically stable, highly ionically and electronically conductive electrochromic polyelectrolyte with a thermal decomposition temperature higher than 309°C and a glass transition temperature of 13°C. Spectroelectrochemical studies of the polymer deposited as a thin film over a transparent conductive substrate demonstrated a reversible redox process with reduction and oxidation potentials of -0.45 and -0.3V, respectively, which was accompanied by a reversible color change from colorless (oxidized state) to purple (reduced state) with an optical contrast of 19% at 525nm, a switching time of nearly 20s and a coloration efficiency of 60 cm2 C-1. Additionally, the film was repetitively switched from colorless to purple and began to lose electroactivity after approximately 4h and 400cycles. However, electroactivity was still observed after 16h or 1600cycles. Moreover, quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring indicated that the polymer charge compensation process was accompanied by a huge viscoelastic change in the film, as demonstrated by the spread of the harmonics and important changes in dissipation. Moreover, the anion is the most important specie in the charge compensation process, the large anion [Tf2N] is unable to compensate the charge, preventing the redox process from occurring. Also regarding the functionalization capacity of LI, a novel LI was prepared from a second functionalizable LI (1-chloropropyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium bromide) which was intensively elucidated by several techniques including two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance 1H, 13C and 15N (2D NMR: COSY, NOESY, HSQC and HMBC). Thus, a functionalized LI with aza-crown ether (LIcrown) was prepared from the reaction of the functionalizable LI and aza-18-crown-6 and, again, the structure was elucidated, including 2D NMR. LIcrown presented good thermal stability (371 ° C) and electrochemistry (4 V window). The density of the IL was 1,5 g cm-3. However, the viscosity of the LI was elevated by directly affecting its electrical conductivity when compared to the 1-butyl-1-methylpyrrolidinium bis(trifluorosulfonyl)imide already widely studied in the literature. For applications, this LIcrown is being studied to act as an electrolyte in lithium ion batteries because of its possible ability to complex with this ion and to decrease the interaction of Li+ with the oxygen of the anionic species [Tf2N].

La mort cellulaire programmée, ou MCP, est un processus dynamique où les cellules ont la capacité de déclencher et de contrôler leur propre mort. Elle est essentielle et présente chez tous les organismes multicellulaires. Chez les plantes, la MCP permet le développement optimal (ex : formation du xylème, morphologie des feuilles, etc.) de la plante tout en protégeant contre divers stress biotiques et abiotiques (ex : la sécheresse, la chaleur, les UV, etc.). Malgré les avancées de ces dernières années, peu de gènes impliqués dans la mise en place de la MCP induite par les UV-C ont été identifiés chez les plantes. L'objectif était donc de caractériser ces gènes chez Arabidopsis thaliana. L'un des candidats est le gène BI-1, pour Bax Inhibitor-1. Il code pour un facteur anti-apoptotique de la MCP animale également retrouvé chez Arabidopsis thaliana. BI-1 régule aussi le taux de calcium du réticulum endoplasmique, ainsi que la formation des espèces réactives de l'oxygène (ROS), permettant l'activation de la réponse de la cellule au stress. L'expression de ce gène suite à une exposition aux UV-C est augmentée, faisant de lui un candidat pour la réponse aux UV-C. Une fusion du promoteur du gène AtBI-1 au gène rapporteur de la luciférase (pAtBI-1::luciférase) a été insérée dans le génome d'Arabidopsis. Une plante homozygote pour l'insertion de l'ADN-T, 5PL20E, a été isolée. Cette lignée parentale a été ensuite mutagénéisée, et un crible effectué sur la descendance exposée aux UV-C a permis d'identifier un mutant, 2017, dont l'expression de la luciférase était modifiée. Le premier objectif de ce projet était de caractériser ce mutant et de déterminer le lien potentiel avec la régulation de BI-1. Dans une deuxième partie, nous nous sommes intéressés aux rôles des thiorédoxines (TRX) dans la MCP végétale. Ces protéines sont présentes chez tous les organismes vivants. Elles régulent les activités de beaucoup d'enzymes en réduisant leurs ponts disulfures. Peu représentées chez l'homme (deux gènes), elles ont néanmoins un rôle de protection dans la voie de signalisation de l'apoptose. Par contre, chez Arabidopsis, une vingtaine de gènes codant pour les thiorédoxines sont connus. Suite à un autre crible aux UV-C d'une banque de mutants d'insertion, un nouveau mutant pour lequel l'insertion de l'ADN-T était dans le promoteur du gène codant pour la thiorédoxine f1 (AtTRX f1) a été identifié. Chez Arabidopsis, deux gènes codent pour les TRX f. Ces protéines ont d’abord été étudiées en tant que régulateur d’enzymes du cycle de Calvin. Plus récemment, d’autres fonctions ont été attribuées, surtout à la TRX f1. Nous avons obtenu de simples mutants pour les deux gènes et produit par croisement des doubles mutants, pour étudier l'implication des TRX f dans la MCP végétale induite par les UV-C (ultraviolets de type C), le MV (methyl viologen) et l'ABA (acide abscissique). En parallèle, des surexpresseurs de la TRX f1 ont été analysés pour ces mêmes stress abiotiques. L'objectif était de déterminer s'il y a une redondance de fonction entre les deux gènes, puisque ces deux protéines, de la même sous-famille, sont localisées au niveau des chloroplastes. Suite à une induction de la MCP par l'un des stress abiotiques, les réponses observées chez les simples mutants sont similaires à celles des plantes sauvages. Par contre, les doubles mutants paraissent plus résistants aux divers stress, alors que les surexpresseurs semblent nettement plus sensibles que les plantes sauvages. Enfin, un dernier axe a été développé sur le rôle des TRX f dans le contrôle des voies de synthèse et de dégradation de l'amidon pour l'ensemble des plantes de notre essai. Il s'avère que les surexpresseurs produisent une plus grande quantité d'amidon que les plantes sauvages. À l'opposé, les simples mutants ont moins d'amidon au niveau des différents tissus étudiés que les plantes sauvages, et les doubles mutants n'en présentent quasiment pas. La présence d'une quantité plus importante d'amidon chez les surexpresseurs de TRX f influence la sensibilité de ces plantes aux stress abiotiques. À l'inverse, les doubles mutants sont plus résitants à ces mêmes stress, où cette quantité d'amidon est fortement diminuée pour ces plantes.

The main aim of the work reported is the design of proof-of-concept of at point-of-use hydrogen peroxide electrogeneration from air. The experimental work discussed within this thesis explores five major areas: the kinetics of electrocatalysis, ion-pairing, change of solvent media, the electrode surface modication by a redox mediator, and the electrochemical reduction of oxygen within enhanced mass transport systems. The electrocatalytic rates and mass transport of two oxygen reduction redox meditors, viz. anthraquinone and methyl viologen, are studied in aqueous solutions. The investigation is facilitated through the use of a boron-doped diamond electrode, allowing the catalytic response to be clearly delineated from that of the direct oxygen reduction process. The use of simulation software is highlighted in combination with experimental voltammograms to extract kinetic data. Specifically, the voltammetric features, such as the `reverse' peak and the `split waves', are given particular attention. Consequently, it is possible to deconvolute the electrocatalytic reaction mechanisms. The reactivity of the viologen radical cation is comparable to the semiquinone radical anion in aqueous solution ((4.8~6)x10^9 M^-1 s^-1), but over a far wider pH range (pH 2.5 - pH 8.5). The change of local proton concentration, and sequential electron transfers play key roles here. Moreover, the reduced reactivity of semiquinone is observed upon formation of ion-pairs with tetrabutylammonium cations in alkaline solutions. The electro-reduction of oxygen and its mediated pathways are also investigated in non-aqueous media; in particular the thermodynamics, the kinetics, and mass transport involved in these processes. Through a variable temperature study in electrolytic acetonitrile solution, the oxygen dissolution is quantitatively shown to be an endothermic process. Moreover, the diffusion coeficients and concentration of oxygen upon change of acetonitrile mole fraction is also explored in water-acetonitrile mixtures. The rates of bimolecular reactions are extracted from simulation programs, involving semiquinone in anhydrous acetonitrile and viologen radical cation in ethanol, and show a 3 - 4 orders of magnitude reduction compared to that in aqueous solution. Although the solubility of oxygen is ca. 6 - 8 times larger in non-aqueous solvents, the much reduced homogeneous rates limit the electrogeneration of hydrogen peroxide in pure organic media. Novel surface modification methodologies for graphitic surfaces with covalently attached anthraquinonyl groups are studied and characterised. The anthraquinonyl-modified carbon surfaces show much reduced overpotentials required for oxygen reduction. In the final chapter, utilising the new surface modification methodology and novel designs, two gravity-feed flow cells for electrochemical reduction of oxygen in aqueous solutions are proposed and characterised, one based upon the tubular electrode geometry. The other exhibits much enhanced current conversion by using a porous reticulated vitreous carbon electrode. The latter may provide a prototype hydrodynamic system to produce dilute hydrogen peroxide solution at point-of-use.

Na área da saúde, destacam-se alguns fármacos amplamente administrados, os quais possuem grupamentos nitro em suas moléculas, como o Clonazepam (CNZ), Nitrazepam (NTZ) e Nimesulida (Nimes). O CNZ e o NTZ são utilizados ilicitamente em coquetéis entorpecentes, fragilizando vítimas. A Nimes é anti-inflamatório amplamente administrado e frequentemente usado sem prescrição médica. As metodologias de detecção e quantificação destes fármacos são, na sua maioria, dispendiosas, desenvolvidas por HPLC, GC, etc. Poucos trabalhos utilizam determinação eletroanalítica e dentre eles, menos ainda utilizam eletrodos quimicamente modificados (EQMs). Os EQMs melhoram a seletividade e sensibilidade das análises. Dentre as formas de modificação, a metodologia de filmes poliméricos é muito versátil e possibilita o desenvolvimento de eletrodos específicos. Uma classe importante de polímeros é a dos derivados de viologênio, como o Poli (benzil viologênio) (PBV). Este polímero é empregado com diferentes finalidades. Possui três estados de oxidação, um deles; o PBV+ atua como mediador redox. E, a partir de experimentos prévios em nosso laboratório demonstrou ainda a possibilidade de atuar na redução de nitrocompostos. Neste sentido, este trabalho determinou as melhores condições experimentais para obtenção de um EQM com o PBV para seu emprego em análise e quantificação de fármacos nitroderivados (CNZ, NTZ e Nimes), bem como em amostras comerciais, utilizando a técnica de voltametria cíclica. Este trabalho contribuiu para o desenvolvimento de uma metodologia eficaz de modificação do eletrodo de carbono vítreo (CV) com o PBV sintetizado. Este método garantiu o controle da cobertura e a linearidade nas análises. Assim, o método foi padronizado com a aplicação de eletrólise por 30 s durante o terceiro ciclo em -0,4 V. A varredura adotada foi 50 mV s-1 de 0 a -0,8 V. Esse padrão forneceu de 2,0 a 3,0 nmol cm-2 de cobertura. O eletrodo CV-PBV não apresentou dificuldades na transferência de carga da superfície do eletrodo para o polímero, apesar do valor de k = 5,2 s-1 em tampão fosfato 0,1 mol L-1 pH 7,0. O valor do coeficiente difusional de cada fármaco foi determinado em tampão fosfato 0,1 mol L-1 pH 7,0. Os estudos de redução dos fármacos em diferentes pHs estão de acordo com o mecanismo descrito na literatura. Além disso, os resultados indicam que o eletrodo modificado diminui a influência do pH sobre a redução dos fármacos. As quantificações dos fármacos foram feitas por curvas padrões com os eletrodos CV e Au, polidos e modificados. As correntes foram lineares até a concentração de 120 mol L-1. A modificação do eletrodo de CV com o PBV diminuiu, no mínimo, em aprox. 80 mV o potencial de redução dos fármacos em pH 7,0 em relação ao eletrodo de CV polido. A exceção foi o eletrodo de ouro modificado (Au-PBV) na análise de Nimes. Pode-se ainda, atribuir à modificação do eletrodo com o PBV o aumento da sensibilidade das análises em comparação aos respectivos eletrodos polidos. Somente a determinação do NTZ não apresentou o mesmo efeito. O eletrodo CV-PBV foi empregado com sucesso na quantificação dos fármacos (NTZ, CNZ e Nimes) em amostras comerciais de Rivotril®, Sonebon® e Nimesulida - medicamento genérico. As quantificações apresentaram aproximadamente 100% de recuperação. A normalização das diferentes análises pelos valores das coberturas dos eletrodos mostrou uma curva analítica com boa correlação linear. Finalmente, os resultados apresentados neste trabalho sugerem a possibilidade de desenvolver eletrodos descartáveis. Estes eletrodos podem ser empregados na análise de substâncias utilizadas de forma ilícitas, neste caso, o coquetel chamado Boa noite Cinderela, para uso da perícia forense em análise amperométrica, no próprio local investigado. Estes eletrodos também podem ser aplicados nas indústrias farmacêuticas, nos setores de controle de qualidade de fármacos e medicamentos. / In health care, broadly administered drugs can be highlighted, which possess nitro group moieties within their molecules, such as the Clonazepam (CNZ), Nitrazepam (NTZ), and Nimesulide (Nimes). CNZ and NTZ are illicitly administered as part of narcotics drinks, weakening their victims. Nimes is an anti-inflammatory drug widely administered and often used in self-medication. Detection and quantification methods of these drugs are in the majority of cases costly and involve techniques such as HPLC, gas chromatography, etc. Only few studies have made use of electroanalytical determination, and among them, even fewer have made use of chemically modified electrodes (CME). CMEs improve selectivity and sensitivity of analysis. Among of modification methods, polymeric films are very versatile and make possible the development of specific electrodes. An important type of polymers comprise Viologen derivatives, such as Poly (benzyl viologen) (PBV). This polymer is used serving different purposes. This polymer has three oxidation states; one of them, PBV+, acts as a redox mediator. Also in addition, our group has provided evidence for the possibility of PBV+ to act reducing nitro compounds. In this way, in the present work it was determined the best experimental conditions for developing CME with PBV for further application in analysis and quantification of nitro derivative drugs (CNZ, NTZ and Nimes), as well as commercial samples, through the use of cyclic voltammetry technique. This work has contributed to the development of an effective methodology for the modification of glassy carbon (GC) electrodes with synthesized PBV. This method guaranteed the control of coverage and the linearity of the analysis. In this way, this method was standardized with a potential hold during the third cycle of about -0.4V for 30 sec. Scan rate of potential was 50 mV s-1, from 0 to -0.8 V. This method provided a coverage 2.0 to 3.0 nmol cm-2. The electrode GC-PBV did not show difficulties to charge transfer from the electrode surface to polymer, although the value of k was 5.2 s-1 in 0.1 mol L-1 phosphate buffer solution, pH 7.0. The difusional coefficient value of each drug was determined in 0.1 mol L-1 phosphate buffer solution, pH 7.0. Reduction studies of drugs in different pHs were in agreement with mechanisms described in the literature. Furthermore, results suggest that modified electrode decreased pH influence regarding drug reduction. Drug quantification was achieved from standard curves using GC and gold electrodes, polished and modified. Currents were linear up to 120 mol L-1. GC electrode modification with PBV decreased, at least, in approximately 80 mV, the drug potential reduction at pH 7.0 compared to respective polished electrode. The exception was found for gold modified electrode during Nimes analysis. It can be also attributed to modification with PBV the increase of analysis sensitivity when compared to respective polished electrodes. Only NTZ determination did not show the same effect. The GC-PBV was successfully employed for drug quantification (NTZ, CNZ and Nimes) from commercial samples, such as Rivotril®, Sonebon® and Nimesulide generic medicine. Drug quantification exhibited recovery close to 100%. Standardization of different analysis by electrode coverage value showed good linear correlation. Finally, results suggest the possibility to develop disposable electrodes. These electrodes can be employed to illicit substance analysis, in the present case, the narcotic drinks known in Brazil as Boa noite Cinderela, in addition to use in forensics during amperometic analysis at the site of investigation. Also, such electrodes could be used in pharmaceutical industries, for drug and medicine quality control.

Research efforts to determine the causes, effects and locations of mutations within the human genome have been widely pursued due to their role in the development of various diseases. The main cause of mutations in vivo is oxidative damage to DNA via oxidants and free radical species. Numerous studies have been performed in vitro to determine how oxidative damage is induced in DNA. Most of these in vitro studies require photosensitizers to initiate the oxidative damage through various mechanisms. For the purposes of this research, all the photosensitizers that were used initiated oxidative damage in DNA through the electron transfer mechanism. In the charge transport studies, an anthraquinone photosensitizer was covalently linked to the 5 end of DNA by a short carbon tether in order to determine the pattern of damage induced along the length of the DNA. Anthraquinone preferentially damages guanine bases. Our first work sought to determine the effects of charge transport through guanine rich quadruplex DNA dimers. The dimers were formed by the combination of two hairpins with duplex overhangs extending beyond the quadruplex region. This enabled the optimal comparison of the effects of charge transport between duplex and quadruplex DNA structures. Another area of research we pursued in this area was to determine the effects of charge transport in M-DNA (a novel DNA conformation that was reported to form in the presence of zinc ions at a pH above 8). Earlier work on M-DNA suggested that it behaved like a molecular wire. Our research attempted to determine the effects of charge transport on this structure in order to show the behavior of a DNA molecular wire as compared to the standard studies performed in this area on normal B-DNA structures. Lastly, in collaboration with Dr. Ramaiah and colleagues we designed some viologen linked acridine photosensitizers which were tested for any ability to cleave GGG bulges. In preliminary studies, these viologen linked acridine derivatives showed preferential cleavage for guanine bases. They were not covalently bound to DNA, although they could potentially form non covalent interactions with DNA such as intercalation and/or groove binding. Our overall research goal was to determine the extent and overall effect of oxidative damage (using different photosensitizers) on the various DNA structures mentioned above.

Na área da saúde, destacam-se alguns fármacos amplamente administrados, os quais possuem grupamentos nitro em suas moléculas, como o Clonazepam (CNZ), Nitrazepam (NTZ) e Nimesulida (Nimes). O CNZ e o NTZ são utilizados ilicitamente em coquetéis entorpecentes, fragilizando vítimas. A Nimes é anti-inflamatório amplamente administrado e frequentemente usado sem prescrição médica. As metodologias de detecção e quantificação destes fármacos são, na sua maioria, dispendiosas, desenvolvidas por HPLC, GC, etc. Poucos trabalhos utilizam determinação eletroanalítica e dentre eles, menos ainda utilizam eletrodos quimicamente modificados (EQMs). Os EQMs melhoram a seletividade e sensibilidade das análises. Dentre as formas de modificação, a metodologia de filmes poliméricos é muito versátil e possibilita o desenvolvimento de eletrodos específicos. Uma classe importante de polímeros é a dos derivados de viologênio, como o Poli (benzil viologênio) (PBV). Este polímero é empregado com diferentes finalidades. Possui três estados de oxidação, um deles; o PBV+ atua como mediador redox. E, a partir de experimentos prévios em nosso laboratório demonstrou ainda a possibilidade de atuar na redução de nitrocompostos. Neste sentido, este trabalho determinou as melhores condições experimentais para obtenção de um EQM com o PBV para seu emprego em análise e quantificação de fármacos nitroderivados (CNZ, NTZ e Nimes), bem como em amostras comerciais, utilizando a técnica de voltametria cíclica. Este trabalho contribuiu para o desenvolvimento de uma metodologia eficaz de modificação do eletrodo de carbono vítreo (CV) com o PBV sintetizado. Este método garantiu o controle da cobertura e a linearidade nas análises. Assim, o método foi padronizado com a aplicação de eletrólise por 30 s durante o terceiro ciclo em -0,4 V. A varredura adotada foi 50 mV s-1 de 0 a -0,8 V. Esse padrão forneceu de 2,0 a 3,0 nmol cm-2 de cobertura. O eletrodo CV-PBV não apresentou dificuldades na transferência de carga da superfície do eletrodo para o polímero, apesar do valor de k = 5,2 s-1 em tampão fosfato 0,1 mol L-1 pH 7,0. O valor do coeficiente difusional de cada fármaco foi determinado em tampão fosfato 0,1 mol L-1 pH 7,0. Os estudos de redução dos fármacos em diferentes pHs estão de acordo com o mecanismo descrito na literatura. Além disso, os resultados indicam que o eletrodo modificado diminui a influência do pH sobre a redução dos fármacos. As quantificações dos fármacos foram feitas por curvas padrões com os eletrodos CV e Au, polidos e modificados. As correntes foram lineares até a concentração de 120 mol L-1. A modificação do eletrodo de CV com o PBV diminuiu, no mínimo, em aprox. 80 mV o potencial de redução dos fármacos em pH 7,0 em relação ao eletrodo de CV polido. A exceção foi o eletrodo de ouro modificado (Au-PBV) na análise de Nimes. Pode-se ainda, atribuir à modificação do eletrodo com o PBV o aumento da sensibilidade das análises em comparação aos respectivos eletrodos polidos. Somente a determinação do NTZ não apresentou o mesmo efeito. O eletrodo CV-PBV foi empregado com sucesso na quantificação dos fármacos (NTZ, CNZ e Nimes) em amostras comerciais de Rivotril®, Sonebon® e Nimesulida - medicamento genérico. As quantificações apresentaram aproximadamente 100% de recuperação. A normalização das diferentes análises pelos valores das coberturas dos eletrodos mostrou uma curva analítica com boa correlação linear. Finalmente, os resultados apresentados neste trabalho sugerem a possibilidade de desenvolver eletrodos descartáveis. Estes eletrodos podem ser empregados na análise de substâncias utilizadas de forma ilícitas, neste caso, o coquetel chamado Boa noite Cinderela, para uso da perícia forense em análise amperométrica, no próprio local investigado. Estes eletrodos também podem ser aplicados nas indústrias farmacêuticas, nos setores de controle de qualidade de fármacos e medicamentos. / In health care, broadly administered drugs can be highlighted, which possess nitro group moieties within their molecules, such as the Clonazepam (CNZ), Nitrazepam (NTZ), and Nimesulide (Nimes). CNZ and NTZ are illicitly administered as part of narcotics drinks, weakening their victims. Nimes is an anti-inflammatory drug widely administered and often used in self-medication. Detection and quantification methods of these drugs are in the majority of cases costly and involve techniques such as HPLC, gas chromatography, etc. Only few studies have made use of electroanalytical determination, and among them, even fewer have made use of chemically modified electrodes (CME). CMEs improve selectivity and sensitivity of analysis. Among of modification methods, polymeric films are very versatile and make possible the development of specific electrodes. An important type of polymers comprise Viologen derivatives, such as Poly (benzyl viologen) (PBV). This polymer is used serving different purposes. This polymer has three oxidation states; one of them, PBV+, acts as a redox mediator. Also in addition, our group has provided evidence for the possibility of PBV+ to act reducing nitro compounds. In this way, in the present work it was determined the best experimental conditions for developing CME with PBV for further application in analysis and quantification of nitro derivative drugs (CNZ, NTZ and Nimes), as well as commercial samples, through the use of cyclic voltammetry technique. This work has contributed to the development of an effective methodology for the modification of glassy carbon (GC) electrodes with synthesized PBV. This method guaranteed the control of coverage and the linearity of the analysis. In this way, this method was standardized with a potential hold during the third cycle of about -0.4V for 30 sec. Scan rate of potential was 50 mV s-1, from 0 to -0.8 V. This method provided a coverage 2.0 to 3.0 nmol cm-2. The electrode GC-PBV did not show difficulties to charge transfer from the electrode surface to polymer, although the value of k was 5.2 s-1 in 0.1 mol L-1 phosphate buffer solution, pH 7.0. The difusional coefficient value of each drug was determined in 0.1 mol L-1 phosphate buffer solution, pH 7.0. Reduction studies of drugs in different pHs were in agreement with mechanisms described in the literature. Furthermore, results suggest that modified electrode decreased pH influence regarding drug reduction. Drug quantification was achieved from standard curves using GC and gold electrodes, polished and modified. Currents were linear up to 120 mol L-1. GC electrode modification with PBV decreased, at least, in approximately 80 mV, the drug potential reduction at pH 7.0 compared to respective polished electrode. The exception was found for gold modified electrode during Nimes analysis. It can be also attributed to modification with PBV the increase of analysis sensitivity when compared to respective polished electrodes. Only NTZ determination did not show the same effect. The GC-PBV was successfully employed for drug quantification (NTZ, CNZ and Nimes) from commercial samples, such as Rivotril®, Sonebon® and Nimesulide generic medicine. Drug quantification exhibited recovery close to 100%. Standardization of different analysis by electrode coverage value showed good linear correlation. Finally, results suggest the possibility to develop disposable electrodes. These electrodes can be employed to illicit substance analysis, in the present case, the narcotic drinks known in Brazil as Boa noite Cinderela, in addition to use in forensics during amperometic analysis at the site of investigation. Also, such electrodes could be used in pharmaceutical industries, for drug and medicine quality control.

La conduction dans les matériaux organiques est un défi fondamental relevé par de nombreux chercheurs pour adapter au mieux la structure des matériaux à leur application. Les radicaux pi-conjugués sont les plus petites entités pouvant être le support d’une charge délocalisée. Ce travail s’inscrit dans le domaine de la synthèse de composés électro-actifs conduisant à des radicaux pi-conjugués pour l’auto-assemblage et le contrôle redox des propriétés de matériaux. Le chapitre 1 introduit les interactions spécifiques aux radicaux pi-conjugués et les propriétés physicochimiques liées aux édifices construits sur ces interactions. L’utilisation de ces interactions est ensuite illustrée par différents exemples choisis de la littérature. Le chapitre 2 porte sur la synthèse de dérivés de viologènes et la formation d’auto-assemblage en solution. Le chapitre 3 concerne le développement de synthèses de bis-viologènes cycliques suivi de l’étude de leur structure à l’état cristallin et en solution. / Conduction in organic materials is a current challenge addressed by many research groups in order to adapt the structure of materials to their expected applications. The understanding of the conduction requires the exploring of conjugated pi-radicals which are the smallest vector for charge delocalisation. This work focuses on the synthesis of electro-active materials, precursors of conjugated pi-radicals for the self-assembly and the redox control of the physical properties of materials. The first chapter introduces intermolecular interactions that are specific of conjugated pi-radicals and the relevant physical evidences characterizing the interactions. The use of these interactions is then illustrated by selected literature examples. The second chapter describes the synthesis of viologens and the formation of assembly in solution. The third chapter deals with the development of synthesis of bis-viologen cyclophanes and their studying both in the solid state and in solution.

Die Arbeit Synthese dendritischer Redoxverbindungen und deren Einsatz in der Bioanalytik beschreibt die Synthese von Dendrimeren und Dendronen mit benzylisch N-quarternisierten 4,4 -Bipyridinium-Verbindungen (Viologenen) im dendritischen Gerüst. Weiterhin werden Synthesen neuer Nitrilotriessigsäure (NTA)-Verbindungen synthetisiert, die eine disulfidische Gruppe oder einen Pyrrolrest besitzen.Sensorik: Es gelang, in Zusammenarbeit mit der Arbeitsgruppe von Prof. Wieczorek, mittels eines massenspezifischen Sensorsystems (QCM) die Analyse zweier Proteine (G-Aktin und C-Untereinheit) bezüglich ihrer Interaktion und Stöchometrie nachzuweisen.NTA modifizierte Elektroden: Es wurden verschiedene NTA-Verbindungen auf Goldelektroden immobilisiert und mittels elektrochemischen Methoden und XPS beschrieben. Darüber hinaus gelang eine NTA Modifizierung einer GC-Elektrode. Eine Polypyrrolfilm-Elektrode, welche aktivierte Propansäureesterseitenkette besitzt, wurde mit Aminobutyl-NTA (AB-NTA) verknüpft. Diese modifizierte Elektrode zeigt reversible Nickelionen Aufnahme bzw. Abgabe.Im Bereich der Multielektronen- bzw. hoch geladenen Labels für Proteine wurden kegelförmige, dendritische Viologenderivaten mit funktionalisierten Fokalpunkt hergestellt und diese mit Proteinen derivatisiert (u.a. Cytochrome C). Der Nachweis der nunmehr pH-unabhängigen Oberflächenladungen des Proteins wurde nachgewiesen. (P. Schön et. al., JACS 2005, 127, 11486).

This doctoral thesis focuses on synthesis of rigid star-shaped and rod-like viologen oligomers. The work is divided in two parts: synthesis, characterization and electropolymerization of star-shaped (i) and rod-like viologens oligomers (ii). In the first part the synthesis of viologen stars consisting of a phenyl core with triple 1,3,5-branching, each branch consisting of a linear alternating series of diphenyl (PhV++) and dibenzyl (BnV++) viologens and a variety of peripheral groups –X (Br, OH), is presented. A new electrochemical method of electrode modification (Gold, GC, ITO and CNTs) with viologen derivatives based on a benzyl radical coupling mechanism is described. The radicals are excessively generated at the star periphery resulting in a highly cross-linked polyviologen film with persisting star subunits. It is characterized by CV, STM and UV-Vis methods. Redox-titration experiments monitored by UV-Vis reveals that the reduction of the viologen stars begins at the periphery with the formation of PhV+•, continues with generation of BnV+• and ends with the reduction of the radical cations in the same sequence. Thus, viologen stars combine the unique redox and electrochromic property of isolated phenyl and benzyl viologen in one molecule. The second part of the thesis focuses on the step-wise synthesis of a library of rigid rod-like conjugated difunctional viologen/diphenyl oligomers with varying chain lengths including different side chain substitution. All oligomers are soluble in DMSO or MeOH depending on the counter anion (PF6- or Cl-). In order to tune the solubility of the oligomers, the side chains are tailored as methoxy, butoxy and oligo(ethylene oxide). The most solubilizing side-chains are of the oligo(ethylene oxide) type. All viologen oligomers are characterized by means of 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR, elemental analysis, optical spectroscopy and cyclic voltammetry. A simple surface functionalization and grafting technique has been developed for covalent binding of the viologen oligomers onto various conductive substrates e.g.: Au, GC and ITO. These modified electrodes are suitable for potential applications in designing field-effect transistors, sensors and supercapacitors. The polymer layers are characterized by means of FT-IR, STM, XPS and CV. The combined results presented in thesis represent a major advance in electrode functionalization by n-dopable viologen polymers and herald a variety of potential applications that make use of n-type semiconductors.