No description available.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a global public health problem with an estimated number of 350 million carriers world wide who are at risk of development of severe liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma. Despite currently available nucleoside analogue therapies no general therapeutic breakthrough, which completely clears infection has been achieved after more then two decades of research. Therefore there is a continuing need to identify new antiviral targets that may be translated into useful therapies. / Hepatitis B fusion represents a possible novel antiviral target. However, its mechanism and the envelope proteins involved remain unknown, due to the lack of an efficient infection system to study the early stages of virus infection. On the other hand, the study of the related duck hepatitis B virus (DHBV) and the ability to carry out an in vitro infection of primary duck hepatocytes has provided some insight into the hepadnaviral mechanism of entry and the role of envelope proteins domains in this process. ( For complete abstract open document)

Viruses cause human diseases by entering in to human cells. Many drugs have been developed that act at various stages of viral infection, but they fail due to their toxic side effects and high mutation rates of viruses. Recently, a new class of drugs called entry inhibitors has been developed which acts on the early stages of viral infection. These drugs have been developed by studying the entry process of viruses in to host cells. The success of these drugs, however, is still limited and research is being done to quantify the optimum dosage of these drugs and find new drugs targets. We developed a mathematical model based on chemical reaction kinetics to estimate the threshold number of complexes between viral and target cell surface proteins necessary for HIV-1 entry into target cells. Our model quantitatively describes data of HIV entry in the presence of several entry inhibitors and presents an avenue for identifying optimal drug levels for restricting HIV entry. Majority of viruses enter into host cells by either endocytosis of fusion. But when virus enters through endocytosis and when through fusion is still not clear. We developed a theory that predicts the virus entry pathway based on the underlying biophysical properties like membrane bending modulus, viral and cellular receptor concentration and the energy released by the formation of protein complexes. Through this theory of viruses we presented the entry of viruses through fusion or endocytosis on a phase diagram. We validated the phase diagram by comparing it with known pathways of existing viruses. This study may aid in unraveling the entry pathways of new viruses and may also help in identifying new drug targets.

Ebola viruses, and other members of the family filoviridae, are enveloped, negative sense, RNA viruses that can cause hemorrhagic fever. Currently, there are no antivirals or approved vaccines available that target or protect from Ebola virus infection. However, recently, T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain-1 (TIM-1) has been identified as an epithelial-cell receptor for filoviruses and could be a potential target for antivirals. However, little is known about how TIM-1 enhances virus entry and the role of TIM-1 during in vivo infection. In order to determine the key residues of TM-1 involved in interaction with virus, we generated a panel of point-mutations in the immunoglobulin-like variable (IgV) domain of TIM-1. We determined that several residues within the IgV domain that are involved in binding of phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) are also critical for Ebola virus entry. Further, we found that TIM-1 interacts with Ebola virus through binding of PtdSer on the viral envelope. PtdSer liposomes, but not phosphatidylcholine liposomes, competed with TIM-1 for EBOV pseudovirion binding and transduction. In addition, annexin V (AnxV) substituted for the TIM-1 IgV domain, supporting a PtdSer-dependent mechanism. Our findings suggest that TIM-1-dependent uptake of EBOV occurs by apoptotic mimicry. We also determined that TIM-1 expression can enhance infection of a wide range of enveloped viruses, including alphaviruses and a baculovirus. As further evidence of the critical role of enveloped virion associated PtdSer in TIM-1-mediated uptake, TIM-1 enhanced internalization of pseudovirions and virus-like particles (VLPs) lacking a glycoprotein, providing evidence that TIM-1 and PtdSer-binding receptors can mediate virus uptake independent of a glycoprotein. These results provide evidence for a broad role of TIM-1 as a PtdSer-binding receptor that mediates enveloped virus uptake. The PtdSer-binding activity of the IgV domain is essential for both virus binding and internalization by TIM-1. However, another member of the TIM family, TIM-3, whose IgV domain also binds PtdSer, does not effectively enhance virus entry. These data indicate that other domains of TIM proteins are functionally important. We investigated the domains of the TIM family members that play a role in the enhancement of enveloped virus entry, thereby defining the features necessary for a functional PVEER. Using a variety of chimeras and deletion mutants, we found that in addition to a functional PtdSer binding domain PVEERs require a stalk domain of sufficient length, containing sequences that promote an extended structure. Neither the cytoplasmic nor the transmembrane domain of TIM-1 is essential for enhancing virus entry, provided the protein is still plasma membrane bound. Based on these defined characteristics, we generated a mimic lacking TIM sequences and composed of annexin V, the mucin-like domain of α-dystroglycan, and a glycophosphatidylinositol anchor that functioned as a PVEER to enhance transduction of virions displaying Ebola, Chikungunya, Ross River, or Sindbis virus glycoproteins. This identification of the key features necessary for PtdSer-mediated enhancement of virus entry provides a basis for more effective recognition of unknown PVEERs. Provided that expression of TIM-1 in cells enhances virus entry through binding of PtdSer on the viral membrane, we wanted to determine whether virus entry would still be enhanced if this interaction was reversed with TIM-1 present on the viral membrane. Further, we reasoned that this might allow for targeting of virus to cells with greater amounts of PtdSer exposed on their outer leaflet, such as cancer cells. In order to test this hypothesis, we generated virions in cells coexpressing a glycoprotein and one of the TIM family members. We found that expression of TIMs in virus-producing cells resulted in TIM proteins being released into the virus-containing medium and enhanced Ebola virus GP pseudovirion titers. Further, this enhancement was dependent on the amount of PtdSer exposed on the target-cell membrane. However, we also determined that TIMs were not being incorporated into virions and that coexpression of TIMs with non-ebolavirus glycoproteins in virus-producing cells resulted in virus stocks with both reduced titers and the quantity of virions.

The four main steps of bacterial viruses (bacteriophages) lytic infection are (i) specific recognition and genome entry into the host bacterium, (ii) replication of the viral genome, (iii) assembly of viral particles, and (iv) their release, leading in most cases to cell lysis. Although the course of individual steps of the viral infection cycle has been relatively well established, the details of how viral DNA transits from the virion to the host cytoplasm and of how the cellular environment catalyzes and possibly organizes the entire process remain poorly understood.Tailed bacteriophages are by far the most abundant viruses that infect Eubacteria. The first event in their infection is recognition of a receptor on the surface of host bacterium by the phage adsorption machinery. The barriers that the infectious particle overcomes subsequently are the cell wall and the cytoplasmic membrane of bacteria. This implies a localized degradation of the wall and the flow of its double stranded DNA (dsDNA) through a hydrophilic pore in the membrane. The lineards DNA molecule is most frequently circularized in the cytoplasm followed by its replication. In this study we used bacteriophage SPP1 that infects the Gram-positive bacterium Bacillus subtilis as a model system to dissect the different steps leading to transfer of the phage genome from the viral capsid to the host cell cytoplasm.normally to B. subtilis but do not trigger depolarization of the CM. Attachment of intact SPP1 particles is thus required for phage-induced depolarization.The beginning of B. subtilis infection by bacteriophage SPP1 was followed inspace and time. The position of SPP1 binding at the cell surface was imaged by fluorescence microscopy using virus particles labeled with "quantum dots". We found that SPP1 reversible adsorption occurs preferentially at the cell poles. This initial binding facilitates irreversible adsorption to the SPP1 phage receptor protein YueB,which is encoded by a putative type VII secretion system gene cluster.Immunostaining and YueB - GFP fusion showed that the phage receptor protein YueB is found over the entire cell surface. It concentrates at the bacterial poles too,and displays a punctate distribution over the sidewalls. The dynamics of SPP1 DNA entry and replication was visualised in real time by assaying specific binding of a fluorescent protein to tandem sequences present in the SPP1 genome. During infection, most of the infecting phages DNA entered and replicated near the bacterial poles in a defined focus. Therefore, SPP1 assembles a replication factory at a specific location in the host cell cytoplasm. DNA delivery to the cytoplasm depends on millimolar concentrations of Ca2+ allowing uncoupling it from the precedent steps of SPP1 adsorption to the cell envelope and CM depolarization that require only micromolar amounts of this divalent cation. A model describing the early events of bacteriophage SPP1 infection is presented.

Here we review viral and cellular requirements for entry and intracellular trafficking of foamy viruses (FVs) resulting in integration of viral sequences into the host cell genome. The virus encoded glycoprotein harbors all essential viral determinants, which are involved in absorption to the host membrane and triggering the uptake of virus particles. However, only recently light was shed on some details of FV’s interaction with its host cell receptor(s). Latest studies indicate glycosaminoglycans of cellular proteoglycans, particularly heparan sulfate, to be of utmost importance. In a species-specific manner FVs encounter endogenous machineries of the target cell, which are in some cases exploited for fusion and further egress into the cytosol. Mostly triggered by pH-dependent endocytosis, viral and cellular membranes fuse and release naked FV capsids into the cytoplasm. Intact FV capsids are then shuttled along microtubules and are found to accumulate nearby the centrosome where they can remain in a latent state for extended time periods. Depending on the host cell cycle status, FV capsids finally disassemble and, by still poorly characterized mechanisms, the preintegration complex gets access to the host cell chromatin. Host cell mitosis finally allows for viral genome integration, ultimately starting a new round of viral replication.

Les quatre étapes principales d'infection des bactéries par leurs virus sont (i) la reconnaissance spécifique de la cellule hôte et l'entrée du génome dans le cytoplasme,(ii) la réplication du génome viral, (iii) l'assemblage des particules virales, et (iv) leur relâchement, menant dans la plupart des cas à la lyse de la cellule. Bien que la description des étapes individuelles du cycle viral a été relativement bien établie, les détails de comment d'ADN viral chemine du virion jusqu’au cytoplasme de la bactérie hôte et de comment l'environnement cellulaire participe au processus restent mal compris.La première étape de l’infection est la reconnaissance d’un récepteur à la surface de la bactérie hôte par la machinerie d’adsorption du phage. Les barrières que l’agent infectieux doit franchir par la suite sont la membrane externe de la bactérie Gram-negative, la paroi cellulaire et la membrane cytoplasmique. Ceci implique une dégradation localisée de la paroi et le cheminement de l’ADN à travers un pore dans la membrane. L‘ADN linéaire se circularise normalement dans le cytoplasme et il est répliqué par la suite. On a utilisé le bactériophage SPP1 qui infecte la bactérie Gram-positive Bacillus subtilis comme modèle d’étude pour disséquer ces différentes étapes clés pour le démarrage de l’infection virale. Dans ce travail de thèse les conditions d’infection et d’acquisition de données pour suivre en temps réel la dépolarisation de la membrane cellulaire de B. subtilis lors de l’infection par SPP1 ont été mis au point. Il est montré que le démarrage de l’infection déclenche une dépolarisation très rapide de la membrane cytoplasmique.Le potentiel de membrane n’est plus rétablit pendant toute la durée du cycle d'infection. Ce changement du potentiel de membrane au début de l’infection dépend de la présence du récepteur YueB. L’amplitude de la dépolarisation dépend du nombre de particules virales infectieuses présentes et de la concentration du récepteur YueB à la surface de la bactérie hôte. L’interaction du phage avec le récepteur YueB conduit à l’interaction irréversible et à l'éjection de l’ADN de SPP1. Pour établir si c’est l’interaction avec YueB ou le début de l’entrée de l’ADN qui conduit à la dépolarisation de la membrane on a utilisé des phages SPP1 éclates par EDTA qui adsorbent normalement à B. subtilis mais qui n’avaient plus leur ADN. Les résultats obtenus ont montré que la dépolarisation requiert l’interaction du virus intacte avec le récepteur YueB. Des concentrations sous-millimolaire de Ca2+ sont nécessaires et suffisantes pour SPP1 liaison réversible à l'enveloppe d'hôte et donc de déclencher la dépolarisation.La cinétique d’entrée de l’ADN du bactériophage SPP1 dans la bactérie Bacillus subtilis a été suivie en temps réel par microscopie de fluorescence. On a mis au point une méthode de microscopie pour visualiser des particules virales marquées avec des «quantum dots» ce qui permit de démontrer que ces particules se fixent préférentiellement aux pôles des bacilli. L’immuno-marquage du récepteur de SPP1,la protéine YueB, a montré que celle-ci a une organisation ponctuée à la surface de B.subtilis et se concentre particulièrement aux extrémités de la bactérie. Cette localisation particulière du phage sur la surface de la cellule hôte corrèle avec l’observation que l’ADN viral rentre dans le cytoplasme (<2 min) et se réplique dans des foci situés dans la plupart des cas à proximité des pôles de B. subtilis. L’étude spatio-temporelle de l’interaction de SPP1 avec son hôte Gram-positive montre que le virus cible des régions spécifiques de la bactérie pour son entrée et pour sa réplication. Transfert d'ADN dans le cytoplasme dépend des concentrations millimolaires de Ca2+. Un modèle décrivant les événements précoces de l'infection bactériophage SPP1 est présenté. / The four main steps of bacterial viruses (bacteriophages) lytic infection are (i) specific recognition and genome entry into the host bacterium, (ii) replication of the viral genome, (iii) assembly of viral particles, and (iv) their release, leading in most cases to cell lysis. Although the course of individual steps of the viral infection cycle has been relatively well established, the details of how viral DNA transits from the virion to the host cytoplasm and of how the cellular environment catalyzes and possibly organizes the entire process remain poorly understood.Tailed bacteriophages are by far the most abundant viruses that infect Eubacteria. The first event in their infection is recognition of a receptor on the surface of host bacterium by the phage adsorption machinery. The barriers that the infectious particle overcomes subsequently are the cell wall and the cytoplasmic membrane of bacteria. This implies a localized degradation of the wall and the flow of its double stranded DNA (dsDNA) through a hydrophilic pore in the membrane. The lineards DNA molecule is most frequently circularized in the cytoplasm followed by its replication. In this study we used bacteriophage SPP1 that infects the Gram-positive bacterium Bacillus subtilis as a model system to dissect the different steps leading to transfer of the phage genome from the viral capsid to the host cell cytoplasm.normally to B. subtilis but do not trigger depolarization of the CM. Attachment of intact SPP1 particles is thus required for phage-induced depolarization.The beginning of B. subtilis infection by bacteriophage SPP1 was followed inspace and time. The position of SPP1 binding at the cell surface was imaged by fluorescence microscopy using virus particles labeled with "quantum dots". We found that SPP1 reversible adsorption occurs preferentially at the cell poles. This initial binding facilitates irreversible adsorption to the SPP1 phage receptor protein YueB,which is encoded by a putative type VII secretion system gene cluster.Immunostaining and YueB – GFP fusion showed that the phage receptor protein YueB is found over the entire cell surface. It concentrates at the bacterial poles too,and displays a punctate distribution over the sidewalls. The dynamics of SPP1 DNA entry and replication was visualised in real time by assaying specific binding of a fluorescent protein to tandem sequences present in the SPP1 genome. During infection, most of the infecting phages DNA entered and replicated near the bacterial poles in a defined focus. Therefore, SPP1 assembles a replication factory at a specific location in the host cell cytoplasm. DNA delivery to the cytoplasm depends on millimolar concentrations of Ca2+ allowing uncoupling it from the precedent steps of SPP1 adsorption to the cell envelope and CM depolarization that require only micromolar amounts of this divalent cation. A model describing the early events of bacteriophage SPP1 infection is presented.

Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) infects more than 170 million people worldwide but no vaccine is available yet. HCV entry may represent a promising target for therapies and is mediated by two envelope glycoproteins, E1 and E2, assembled as heterodimer onto the virus surface. However, how E1 and E2 dialog, structurally rearrange and act together during these steps remain poorly defined. In this work, we aimed to clarify the interrelation of E1E2 during virus entry, thus opening ways to potential new therapeutic strategies. We first investigated whether a strong genetic divergence between E1E2 heterodimers may highlight distinct functions. We observed that B-cell derived E1E2 were specialized for B-cell infection, suggesting that new functions can emerge from the E1E2 conformational plasticity. In a second approach, we identified a conserved dialog between E1 and the domain III of E2 that was critical for virus binding and fusion. Moreover, a computational model predicted a strong co-evolution between E1 and E2 as well as potential structural rearrangements, suggesting that HCV E2 is likely a fusion protein able to fold over via its domain III through the mediation of E1. Altogether, these different works highlight that E1 and E2 are involved in complex dialogs that regulate the heterodimer folding and functions, suggesting that E1E2 heterodimer is more likely a single functional protein entity than an association of two proteins with specific functions.

No description available.

Emerging arthropod-borne viruses, such as alphaviruses and bunyaviruses, represent a serious threat to human and animal health worldwide, and for most of them, vaccines and specific treatments are unavailable. Viral host cell entry can be divided into several entry checkpoints, and the most important checkpoints for low pH-dependent enveloped viruses, such as bunyaviruses and alphaviruses, include receptor binding at the cell surface and, followed by endocytosis, low pH dependent membrane fusion from within intracellular compartments. A more thorough understanding of the detailed mechanisms allowing the viruses to pass these checkpoints is a pre-requisite for the design of viral entry inhibitors. This thesis reports the in vitro analysis of native alphavirus-receptor interactions, with the help of electron cryo-microscopy and icosahedral reconstruction of virus-recaptor complexes, using the prototypic alphavirus Semliki Forest virus (SFV) and the C-type lectin DC-SIGN. Together with results from collaborative work on SFV glycosylation, this study provides progress in defining the binding sites of DC-SIGN at the surface of SFV. Second, an in vitro system for phlebovirus fusion was developed using standard fluorometry, and has been characterized with the help of electron cryo-microscopy. It was discovered that negatively charged phospholipids with a conical shape, including the late endosomal phospholipid BMP, allow efficient phlebovirus fusion in vitro, thereby providing a possible rationale for phlebovirus fusion in late endosomes. Furthermore, electron cryo-microscopy of phlebovirus-liposome complexes allowed the capture of early stage fusion intermediates and laid the basis for possible future higher resolution studies of these fusion intermediates.