The focus of this thesis is the life and death of adult retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). RGCs are neurons that convey visual information from the retina to higher centers in the brain. If the optic nerve is transected (ONT), adult RGCs die by a form of cell death called apoptosis, and a general hypothesis is that neurotrophic factors can support the survival of injured neurons. With the intention to gain knowledge about systems that can be used to decrease RGC death after ONT, we have studied growth factor receptors belonging to the tyrosine kinase family of receptors (RTK), known to mediate important cell survival signals. We found that the RTK Ret and its coreceptor GFRα1 were expressed by RGCs, and to test the above-mentioned hypothesis, we intraocularly administered glial cell-line derived factor, which activates a Ret-GFRα1 complex, and found transiently mediated RGC survival after ONT. To identify new, potential neurotrophic factor receptors expressed by RGCs, with the aim to improve RGC survival after ONT, we developed a method for the molecular analysis of acutely isolated RGCs. The method involves retrograde neuronal tracing, mechanical retinal layer-separation, and isolation of individual RGCs under UV-light for RT-PCR analysis. Using this method, in combination with degenerate PCR directed towards the tyrosine kinase domain, several RTKs were identified. Axl, Sky, VEGFR-2, VEGFR-3, CSF-1R, and PDGF-βR are expressed by adult RGCs, and considered to be receptors with potential neurotrophic activity. Other results have shown that RGCs may require depolarization or increase in intracellular cAMP levels in order to fully respond to exogenously added trophic factors. We found that melanocortin receptors (MCRs) were expressed by RGCs, and MCRs can mediate elevation of intracellular AMP. We observed that α-MSH induced neurite outgrowth from embryonic retinal cells, indicating that MCR ligands have direct effects on retinal cells. RTKs and their ligands may be involved in endogenous systems for neuronal repair within the visual system. BDNF, NT-3, FGF2, and HGFR all increased in the retina after ONT and may be a part of an activated system for neuronal repair locally within the retina. Adult axotomized RGCs die by apoptosis, therefore we examined the regulation of apoptotic genes after ONT. Bim and Bax increased in the retina after ONT, and may promote death of axotomized RGCs, whereas the increase in Bcl-2 may contribute to limit RGC apoptosis after ONT. All in all, this thesis provides insights into the expression and regulation of molecules involved in the death and survival of RGCs. The results have revealed a number of potential neurotrophic receptors expressed by RGCs, and both identified RTKs and MCRs will serve as new targets in therapeutic approaches aiming at counteraction of RGC death after injury.

The aim of this study is to work on the visual quality metrics that are widely accepted in literature, to evaluate them on different distortion types and to give a comparison of overall performances in terms of prediction accuracy, monotonicity, consistency and complexity. The algorithms behind the quality metrics in literature and parameters used for quality metric performance evaluations are studied. This thesis also includes the explanation of Human Visual System, classification of visual quality metrics and subjective quality assessment methods. Experimental results that show the correlation between objective scores and human perception are taken to compare the eight widely accepted visual quality metrics.

<p>The problem of spatial disorientation during flight of aircraft is briefly described, as are definitions of the phenomenon. Traditional countermeasure efforts that are often directed towards changes in the central visual field are reconsidered in favour of presentation of information in the peripheral visual field. It is proposed to use optic flow to support spatial orientation, as well as to omit such information from the central visual field. An experiment was conducted, and results showed that forward visual flow gave very important spatial information. The flow could be cropped to a certain degree in the periphery (horizontally), as well as parts of the central presentation could be omitted without decreasing effects in the experiment. Implications relevant to possible implementations in aircraft are discussed.</p>

Our senses are our mind's window to the outside world and determine how we perceive our environment.Sensory systems are complex multi-level systems that have to solve a multitude of tasks that allow us to understand our surroundings.However, questions on various levels and scales remain to be answered ranging from low-level neural responses to behavioral functions on the highest level.Modeling can connect different scales and contribute towards tackling these questions by giving insights into perceptual processes and interactions between processing stages.In this thesis, numerical simulations of spiking neural networks are used to deal with two essential functions that sensory systems have to solve: pattern recognition and prediction.The focus of this thesis lies on the question as to how neural network connectivity can be used in order to achieve these crucial functions.The guiding ideas of the models presented here are grounded in the probabilistic interpretation of neural signals, Hebbian learning principles and connectionist ideas.The main results are divided into four parts.The first part deals with the problem of pattern recognition in a multi-layer network inspired by the early mammalian olfactory system with biophysically detailed neural components.Learning based on Hebbian-Bayesian principles is used to organize the connectivity between and within areas and is demonstrated in behaviorally relevant tasks.Besides recognition of artificial odor patterns, phenomena like concentration invariance, noise robustness, pattern completion and pattern rivalry are investigated.It is demonstrated that learned recurrent cortical connections play a crucial role in achieving pattern recognition and completion.The second part is concerned with the prediction of moving stimuli in the visual system.The problem of motion-extrapolation is studied using different recurrent connectivity patterns.The main result shows that connectivity patterns taking the tuning properties of cells into account can be advantageous for solving the motion-extrapolation problem.The third part focuses on the predictive or anticipatory response to an approaching stimulus.Inspired by experimental observations, particle filtering and spiking neural network frameworks are used to address the question as to how stimulus information is transported within a motion sensitive network.In particular, the question if speed information is required to build up a trajectory dependent anticipatory response is studied by comparing different network connectivities.Our results suggest that in order to achieve a dependency of the anticipatory response to the trajectory length, a connectivity that uses both position and speed information seems necessary.The fourth part combines the self-organization ideas from the first part with motion perception as studied in the second and third parts.There, the learning principles used in the olfactory system model are applied to the problem of motion anticipation in visual perception.Similarly to the third part, different connectivities are studied with respect to their contribution to anticipate an approaching stimulus.The contribution of this thesis lies in the development and simulation of large-scale computational models of spiking neural networks solving prediction and pattern recognition tasks in biophysically plausible frameworks. / <p>QC 20150504</p>

Syngnathidae (seahorse, pipefish, pipehorses & seadragons) are highly visual feeders with different species feeding on specific types of prey, a behaviour that has been related to snout length. Worldwide, many species have become threatened by habitat destruction, collection for the aquarium trade and exploitation for traditional medicine, as well as recreational and commercial bycatch. Attempts to establish aquaculture programs have been of limited success. Little is known about their visual capabilities in detail. The visual systems of fishes are known to have evolved specific adaptations that can be related to the colour of water in which they live and specific visual tasks such as predator detection and acquisition of food. This study examined the ocular and retinal morphology, photoreceptor structure and spectral sensitivity of adult individuals of a local pipefish (S. argus), local seahorse (Hippocampus subelongatus) which both inhabit green water seagrass beds, and a tropical species of seahorse (Hippocampus barbouri) from blue water coral reefs. Some juveniles were also investigated. Accordingly, we developed an understanding of the features that are common to all syngnathids and those that have evolved for specific environments. Cryosections of the eyes were taken to determine morphological distinctions of this group. Lens characteristics measured using a spectrophotometer determined 50% cut-off wavelengths below 408nm for all 3 species, hence no transmission of UV light to the retina. Histological examination determined a cone dominated fovea in the ventro-temporal retina and very large rods concentrated in the peripheral retina and adjacent to the optic nerve. Microspectrophotometry measured the absorption characteristics of the visual pigments within the photoreceptors showing the presence and maximum sensitivity (λmax) of rods, SWS single cones, and a broad, complex array of LWS double/twin cones. The results are discussed in relation to the light environment inhabited by each species and their feeding requirements. The implications for the design of suitable light environments for aquarium and aquaculture programs for the Syngnathidae are also discussed. Rearing success of this family of fish, for both the aquarium trade and re-stocking programs, would be advised to take lighting regimes and specifics of the animals’ vision into account

[Truncated abstract] During development of the visual system, topographic connections between the retina and the superior colliculus are established using guidance molecules. The EphA family of tyrosine kinase receptors and their ephrin-A ligands are important for establishing topography between the temporo-nasal axis of the retina and the rostro-caudal axis of the superior colliculus. After injury to the visual system via unilateral optic nerve transection, adult mammalian retinal ganglion cells fail to regenerate axons spontaneously to their main visual centre, which in rodents, is the superior colliculus. The EphA5 gradient is down-regulated from a temporalhigh to nasallow gradient to a uniform low level in the few surviving retinal ganglion cells, but ephrin-A2 is upregulated back to a significant rostrallow to caudalhigh gradient in the superior colliculus, similar to that seen during development. In this thesis, a number of experiments have been undertaken to investigate further how EphA5 and ephrin-A2 are regulated after injury and how they may play a role once regeneration has been encouraged through surgical intervention. In the first study, targeted unilateral retinal laser lesions were used to ablate either dorso-nasal or ventro-temporal quadrants of the retina. ... Surviving and regenerating retinal ganglion cells in the retina, and axons in the optic nerve, were analysed. The data suggest that metallothionein-I/II increases axonal regeneration through the optic nerve injury site but, at the dose administered, had no neuroprotective effects on retinal ganglion cells. This thesis provides further insight into the response of guidance molecules to injury, and the potential of metallothionein-I/II as a neuroregenerative factor in the adult mammalian visual system. The regulation of both EphA5 and ephrin-A2 through transsynaptic connections may be a response common to other guidance molecules. Such connectivity now needs to be studied further to understand how it may impact on various treatments designed to increase re-connectivity after other brain injuries, including stroke. The ectopic expression of ephrin-A2 at the insertion site of a peripheral nerve graft in the superior colliculus, implicate this guidance molecule in the glial scar for the first time. Therefore, to overcome inhibition by the glial scar, axons must also overcome ephrin-A2 mediated inhibition, potentially by the addition of EphA5 fusion proteins. Metallothionein-I/II?s effect of increasing axonal regeneration through the optic nerve injury site suggests that it could be used to increase the number of regenerating axons reaching their target. Such strategies to increase the absolute number of regenerated axons should enable these axons to better use the EphA5 and ephrin-A2 topographic gradients to optimize regenerative success.

In this thesis, I describe a quantitative model that accounts for the circuits and computations of the feedforward path of the ventral stream of visual cortex. This model is consistent with a general theory of visual processing that extends the hierarchical model of (Hubel & Wiesel, 1959) from primary to extrastriate visual areas. It attempts to explain the first few hundred milliseconds of visual processing and “immediate recognition”. One of the key elements in the approach is the learning of a generic dictionary of shape-components from V2 to IT, which provides an invariant representation to task-specific categorization circuits in higher brain areas. This vocabulary of shape-tuned units is learned in an unsupervised manner from natural images, and constitutes a large and redundant set of image features with different complexities and invariances. This theory significantly extends an earlier approach by (Riesenhuber & Poggio, 1999) and builds upon several existing neurobiological models and conceptual proposals.First, I present evidence to show that the model can duplicate the tuning properties of neurons in various brain areas (e.g., V1, V4 and IT). In particular, the model agrees with data from V4 about the response of neurons to combinations of simple two-bar stimuli (Reynolds et al, 1999) (within the receptive field of the S2 units) and some of the C2 units in the model show a tuning for boundary conformations which is consistent with recordings from V4 (Pasupathy & Connor, 2001). Second, I show that not only can the model duplicate the tuning properties of neurons in various brain areas when probed with artificial stimuli, but it can also handle the recognition of objects in the real-world, to the extent of competing with the best computer vision systems. Third, I describe a comparison between the performance of the model and the performance of human observers in a rapid animal vs. non-animal recognition task for which recognition is fast and cortical back-projections are likely to be inactive. Results indicate that the model predicts human performance extremely well when the delay between the stimulus and the mask is about 50 ms. This suggests that cortical back-projections may not play a significant role when the time interval is in this range, and the model may therefore provide a satisfactory description of the feedforward path.Taken together, the evidences suggest that we may have the skeleton of a successful theory of visual cortex. In addition, this may be the first time that a neurobiological model, faithful to the physiology and the anatomy of visual cortex, not only competes with some of the best computer vision systems thus providing a realistic alternative to engineered artificial vision systems, but also achieves performance close to that of humans in a categorization task involving complex natural images. / PhD thesis

Η πλαστικότητα - η ικανότητα του εγκεφάλου να αναδιοργανώνει τις συνδέσεις του δομικά και λειτουργικά σε απάντηση μεταβολών της αισθητικής εμπειρίας - είναι απαραίτητη για την ανάπτυξη των νευρικών κυκλωμάτων και την δυνατότητα προσαρμογής του νευρικού συστήματος στο περιβάλλον. Το οπτικό σύστημα έχει για χρόνια αποτελέσει το έδαφος των περισσότερων μελετών της εξαρτώμενης από την εμπειρία πλαστικότητας και αυτό χάριν του εύκολου χειρισμού της οπτικής εμπειρίας καθώς και των συνεπειών αυτής, που δύνανται να μελετηθούν σε ανατομικό και μοριακό επίπεδο αλλά και σε επίπεδο φυσιολογίας. Σε ζώα που μεγάλωσαν στο σκοτάδι από την γέννηση, οι φλοιϊκοί νευρώνες εμφανίζουν ιδιότητες ανώριμου οπτικού συστήματος όπως μεγαλύτερα υποδεκτικά πεδία, μειωμένη ικανότητα προσανατολισμού και κατεύθυνσης και μειωμένη οπτική οξύτητα, όπως αυτών που παρατηρείται κατά την στιγμή του ανοίγματος των οφθαλμών. Η πιο κλασική μορφή πλαστικότητας που χρησιμοποιήθηκε σαν μοντέλο για την κατανόηση του τρόπου με τον οποίο η δραστηριότητα συμμετέχει στην δημιουργία των νευρικών κυκλωμάτων είναι αυτή της οφθαλμικής επικράτησης (Hubel and Wiesel, 1963). Παρά το γεγονός ότι το οπτικό σύστημα αποτελεί για πολλά χρόνια ένα από τα καλύτερα μοντέλα για την μελέτη του φαινομένου της πλαστικότητας, εντούτοις οι περισσότερες εργασίες αναφέρονται κυρίως στον οπτικό φλοιό, στο έξω γονατώδες σώμα και στο άνω διδύμιο. Λιγότερες μελέτες αναφέρονται στον αμφιβληστροειδή όπου από τα πειράματα των Chalupa et al (1993) αλλά και Tian et al (2003) φαίνεται ότι η πλαστικότητα ίσως δεν είναι προνόμιο μόνο του οπτικού φλοιού. Οι μελέτες αυτές έδειξαν ότι τόσο φαρμακολογικοί παράγοντες όσο και η οπτική αποστέρηση δύνανται να οδηγήσουν σε αναδιοργάνωση της φυσιολογικής δομής του ιστού του αμφιβληστροειδούς. Το γλουταμινικό οξύ είναι ο κύριος διεγερτικός νευροδιαβιβαστής στο κεντρικό νευρικό σύστημα. Ένας από τους υποδοχείς μέσω των οποίων ασκεί τη δράση του είναι οι υποδοχείς του Ν-μέθυλο-D-ασπαρτικού οξέος (NMDA) οι οποίοι έχουν σημαντικό ρόλο στην πλαστικότητα λόγω της διττής ιδιότητας του να είναι ιοντο-εξαρτώμενοι και τασο-εξαρτώμενοι υποδοχείς. Πληθώρα ερευνών έχει δείξει ότι οι υποδοχείς αυτοί συμμετέχουν στους κυτταρικούς μηχανισμούς για την πλαστικότητα των νευρωνικών κυκλωμάτων όπως LTP (μακρόχρονη ενδυνάμωση) και LTD (μακρόχρονη καταστολή). Μελέτες είτε με φαρμακολογικό αποκλεισμό είτε με γενετική τροποποίηση των υποδοχέων NMDA έχουν δείξει την εξάρτηση της πλαστικότητας των κυκλωμάτων του οπτικού συστήματος από τους υποδοχείς NMDA. Γνωρίζουμε ότι μεταφραστικές και μετα-μεταφραστικές τροποποιήσεις, καθώς και ρύθμιση της διακίνησης των υποδοχέων NMDA παίζουν ενεργό ρόλο στον μηχανισμό πλαστικότητας της γλουταμινεργικής σύναψης. Ένας από τους βασικούς μηχανισμούς ρύθμισης των υποδοχέων NMDA είναι η φωσφορυλίωση που παίζει ρόλο τόσο στην ενδοκυττάρια διακίνηση του υποδοχέα όσο και στις ιδιότητες του διαύλου του υποδοχέα μεταβάλλοντας κατά αυτόν τον τρόπο την συναπτική ισχύ και εν τέλει συμμετέχοντας σε διάφορες μορφές συναπτικής πλαστικότητας. Με βάση τα παραπάνω, σκοπός της παρούσας μελέτης είναι να διερευνήσει τη συμβολή του γλουταμινεργικού υποδοχέα NMDA στην πλαστικότητα του αναπτυσσόμενου οπτικού συστήματος. Η παρούσα διατριβή μελετά την επίδραση της οπτικής εμπειρίας στην ρύθμιση των υπομονάδων του υποδοχέα NMDA στον αμφιβληστροειδή και τον οπτικό φλοιό επίμυων. Συγκεκριμένα, πρώτος στόχος της εργασίας είναι να μελετήσουμε την μεταβολή των επιπέδων έκφρασης των υπομονάδων NR2A και NR2B του υποδοχέα NMDA κατά την ανάπτυξη των επίμυων στο σκοτάδι (οπτική αποστέρηση) στον αμφιβληστροειδή. Δεύτερος στόχος να μελετήσουμε την επίδραση του οπτικής αποστέρησης στην φωσφορυλίωση της υπομονάδας ΝR2B στον αμφιβληστροειδή και στον οπτικό φλοιό. Τρίτος στόχος είναι να μελετήσουμε τα επίπεδα έκφρασης και φωσφορυλίωσης των υπομονάδων του υποδοχέα NMDA μετά από έκθεση στο φως των επίμυων που μεγάλωσαν στο σκοτάδι με σκοπό να εξετάσουμε εάν η ρύθμιση τους από την οπτική εμπειρία είναι αμφίδρομη. / Experimental manipulation of experience during development can have profound effects on the functioning of the resulting circuits. N-methyl-d-aspartate glutamate receptor (NMDAR) activity is required for the establishment and refinement of neural circuits during development. In the present study, the authors addressed the issue of experience-dependent regulation of NMDARs by examining the effects of visual experience and deprivation on subunit composition and subunit phosphorylation of NMDAR in the retina and visual cortex. Methods. Total homogenates were prepared from retinas and visual cortices of 30-day-old (P30) Wistar rats, raised either in a normal 12-hour light/12-hour dark cycle (normal-reared [NR]) or in complete darkness from birth (dark-reared [DR]). Some of the DR animals were exposed to light for 6 hours at P30 (DR+6h). Immunoblotting was performed for the NMDAR subunits, NR2A and NR2B, and for the phosphorylated NR2B subunit protein at serine 1303 (pNR2B-Ser1303). Results. Dark rearing for 1 month decreased the NR2A/NR2B ratio and increased the level of phosphorylation of NR2B subunit at Ser1303 in the retina and visual cortex. Light exposure at P30 reversed the effects of visual deprivation on NMDAR composition and NR2B phosphorylation in both regions. Conclusions. These results indicated that NMDAR subunit composition and NR2B phosphorylation at Ser1303 is regulated bidirectionally by visual experience and deprivation in rat retina and visual cortex.

Em um dos estágios do processamento visual da mosca - a placa lobular, uma para cada hemisfério da cabeça da mosca - nós encontramos neurônios dedicados à detecção e processamento do auto-movimento. Um destes neurônios, chamado HI, detecta o movi-mento de trás para frente na horizontal e os dois neurônios de cada lado da cabeça interagem, melhorando a extração da informação sobre o estímulo gerado pelo ambiente. Neste trabalho nós apresentamos uma instalação experimental de registro simultâneo dos dois neurônios HI, discutimos as dificuldades associadas com este esforço e os dados preliminares obtidos. Os spikes gerados pelos neurônios HI são registrados extracelularmente com elétrodos de tungstênio, alimentam um head-stage, um pré-amplificador e um discriminador, todos dispositivos eletrônicos analógicos, para serem processados em um digital, a fim de registar os tempos de chegada dos spikes com precisão de microssegundos. O hardware analógico e o digital são controlados pelo software Linux RealTime, baseados em RTLinux. O sistema de aquisição dos spike- times possui três canais de entrada e um de saída: uma entrada para cada HI e um para sincronização e uma saída para o envio\' do estímulo com 16 bits de resolução, que consiste no movimento horizontal de uma tela fixa. Nós discutiremos as dificuldades encontradas durante os testes/eliminação dos erros do equipamento. Estas têm sua origem em ter que controlar o \"wetware\" biológico e no hard/software eletrônicos. / In one of the fiy\'s optical processing stages - the lobula plate, one for each hemisphere of he fly\'s head -, we find neurons dedicated to the detection and processing of self-¬motion. One of these neurons, called H1, detects horizontal back-to-front motion and the two neurons of each side of the head interact, improving the extraction of information about the stimulus generated by the environment. In this work we present an experimental setup to record simultaneously from the two H1 neurons, discuss the difficulties associated with this endeavour and preliminary data obtained. The spikes generated by the H1 neurons are picked up extracellularly with Tungsten electrodes, are feed via a head-stage, a preamplifier and a discriminator, all electronic analog devices, to be processed from here on digitally, in arder to register the spike arrival times with microsecond precision. The analog and the digital hardware, based on RTLinux, are controlled by Linux RealTime software. The spike-time acquisition system has three input and one output channel: one input for each H1 and one for sinchronization and one output for delivering the stimulus with 16 bits resolution, consisting of the horizontal positions of a rigidly moving picture. We discuss the difficulties encountered during the testing/debugging of the equipment. These have their origin both having to control the biological \"wetware\" and the electric hard/soft-ware.

Como a informação sobre o ambiente natural é codificada na atividade neural do cérebro? Existe de fato um código neural que impera ao longo de todo processamento neural? Essas são algumas das grandes perguntas da Neurociência da atualidade. Assumindo que estratégias bem sucedidas são preservadas e reaproveitadas através da Evolução, buscamos explorar essas questões ao analisar a resposta extracelular do neurônio H1 do sistema visual da mosca a estímulos visuais com distribuições estatísticas de velocidades horizontais bem definidas. Utilizando uma abordagem de Sistemas Complexos, a análise de multifractalidade do código neural do H1 lança algumas luzes sobre uma estratégia de codificação fascinante, sustentando a idéia de que esse neurônio é capaz de falar diferentes linguagens, se ajustando de forma extremamente dinâmica e flexível à complexidade do estímulo visual (1), visando uma transmissão ótima de informação (2). / How is information about the natural environment coded in the brain neural activity? Is there really a neural code that reigns throughout the neural processing? These are some of the greatest questions of todays Neuroscience. Assuming that well succeeded strategies are preserved and reused through Evolution, we seek to explore these questions by analyzing the extracellular response of the blowfly visual system H1 neuron to certain visual stimuli with well known statistical distributions of horizontal velocities. Using a Complex Systems approach, the multifractality analysis of H1s neural code casts highlights in its fascinating coding strategy, supporting the idea that this neuron is capable of speaking different languages by adjusting itself to the complexity in visual stimuli in a very dynamical and flexible way (1), aiming at a optimal information transmission (2).