Esta dissertação trata das tecnologias mais recentes na distribuição de água na Região Metropolitana de São Paulo, analisando-as como parte de novas diferenças qualitativas no espaço urbano e metropolitano. Ao estudar historicamente o contexto econômico, político-institucional e técnico do setor, dos planos de abastecimento e da Companhia de Saneamento Básico de São Paulo - Sabesp, busca compreender as relações estabelecidas entre as metas de universalização de saneamento e as novas tecnologias e estratégias operacionais, a internacionalização econômica e financeira da Sabesp, e a delimitação de uma esfera pública dos serviços urbanos na metrópole de São Paulo. Em última instância, busca compreender impedimentos criados à potência política do espaço. / This dissertation deals with the most recent technologies for water production and distribution at the Metropolitan Area of São Paulo as part of new qualitative differences in urban and metropolitan space. It aims to understand - by the study of the economical, political-institutional and technical backgrounds of the São Paulo Water Utility (Sabesp) - the links between new technologies and operational strategies, the financial and economical internationalization of the company, universalization goals in water utilities and the delimitation of a public sphere in utilities in São Paulo metropolis. In a word, it aims to understand barriers to virtual capacities of space as political power.

O dimensionamento otimizado de sistemas de distribuição de águas tem originado centenas de trabalhos científicos nas últimas quatro décadas. Vários pesquisadores têm buscado encontrar uma metodologia capaz de dimensionar essas redes considerando diversos aspectos e incertezas características desse tipo de projeto. No entanto, os resultados da maioria das metodologias desenvolvidas não podem ser aplicados na prática. O objetivo deste trabalho é elaborar uma metodologia de dimensionamento de redes de distribuição de água considerando um enfoque multiobjetivo. A metodologia desenvolvida considera três aspectos referentes ao projeto desses sistemas: custo; confiabilidade e perdas por vazamentos. Para tanto, empregou-se um método de otimização multiobjetivo baseado em algoritmos genéticos para a geração do conjunto de soluções não-dominadas e um método multicriterial para escolha da alternativa final. Para representar os objetivos do problema, foram testadas nove funções: custo, vazamentos, entropia, resiliência, tolerância à falha, expansibilidade, efeito do envelhecimento e resilientropia, sendo que sete destas são específicas para a representação da confiabilidade. Para se avaliar as alternativas geradas foi desenvolvido um modelo de análise hidráulica que fosse capaz de trabalhar com vazamentos e com demandas dependente da pressão. Os métodos escolhidos foram o Híbrido de Nielsen e o Gradiente. Das funções testadas, a resilientropia, proposta originalmente neste trabalho, foi a que melhor se ajustou ao conceito formal de confiabilidade, representado pela função tolerância. Os resultados encontrados pela metodologia mostraram-se promissores, uma vez esta foi capaz de encontrar redes eficientes ao final das simulações. / The topic \"Optimized design of water distribution systems\" has generated hundreds of scientific publications in the last four decades. Several researchers have searched for a technology which would take into account a variety of aspects and uncertainties innate to the design of such networks. However, the results of most methodologies developed are not practical. The objective of this work is to develop a methodology for water distribution systems design that has a multi-objective focus. The methodology developed focuses in three aspects of the design of such systems: cost, reliability and losses by leaking. A multiobjective optimization method based on generic algorithms, generating a set of non-defined solutions, and a multi-criteria method for choosing the final alternative, was employed. Nine functions representing the objectives of the problem (method) were tested: cost, leakages, entropy, resilience, failure tolerance, expansibility, aging effect and resilienthropy, seven of which are specific to representing reliability. In order to evaluate the generated alternatives, a hydraulic analysis model, that could handle leakages and pressure dependent demands, was developed. The chosen methods were Nielsen\'s Hybrid, and the Gradient. Of all tested functions, resilientropy, originally proposed in this work, proved to be the one best adjusted to the formal concept of reliability, represented by the tolerance function. The results obtained by this methodology are promising, as they produced efficient distribution networks at the end of the simulations performed.

Orientador: Raimundo Leite Cruz / Coorientador: Roberto Lyra Villas Bôas / Banca: Dirceu Maximino Fernandes / Banca: João Luis Zocoler / Helton Rogério Mazzer / Resumo: Com o propósito de avaliar a susceptibilidade de dois tipos de gotejadores ao processo de entupimento por ferro, foi conduzido um experimento em uma bancada de ensaios no Laboratório de Ensaio de Equipamentos para Irrigação do Departamento de Engenharia Rural da Universidade Estadual Paulista "Júlio de Mesquita Filho" - Campus de Botucatu. O ensaio corresponde ao processo de entupimento, e foram avaliados os seguintes modelos de gotejadores NaanDanJain: NaanPC laranja e NaanPC azul. Foram utilizados segmentos de tubos, totalizando 25 emissores, onde se mediu a vazão com a pressão de 150 KPa, com três repetições para cada gotejador. A água utilizada no ensaio foi proveniente do lago do Departamento de Engenharia Rural que é comumente utilizado para irrigações de experimentos. Posteriormente foram calculados: Vazão Média, Coeficiente de Variação de Vazão (C.V.Q), Uniformidade de Distribuição da Água (C.U.D), Coeficiente de Uniformidade de Christiansen (C.U.C) e Vazão Relativa (V.R.). Foi utilizado delineamento experimental estatístico de blocos inteiramente casualizados, com fatorial 2x2x7, com três repetições, sendo o primeiro fator os tratamentos com ferro, o segundo fator os tipos de gotejadores e o terceiro fator o tempo. Os resultados obtidos não apontaram diferença significativa nas diferentes doses de ferro. Entretanto, os resultados apontaram diferença significativa na interação gotejador x tempo e coeficiente de uniformidade de Christiansen (CUC) e vazão relativa (V.R.) / Abstract: The objective of this study was to evaluate the susceptibility of clogging by iron in two types of drippers using a test bank located at the Irrigation Experimental Laboratory in the Department of Agricultural Engineering of "Sao Paulo State University Julio de Mesquita Filho "- Campus of Botucatu, Sao Paulo state. The experiment aims to study the clogging process, evaluating 2 models of drippers NaanDanJain: NaanPC orange and NaanPC blue. It was used tube segments, totaling 25 drippers, using pressure of 150 kPa, with 3 repetitions for each dripper. The water used in the test was from the lake of the Department of Agricultural Engineering which is commonly used for irrigation experiments. It was calculated: the average discharge, the variation coefficient of discharge (CVQ), the uniformity coefficient of distribution (CUD), the uniformity coefficient of Christiansen (CUC) and the relative discharge (VR). It was used statistical experimental design of randomized blocks, with a 2x2x7 factorial with three replications, with the first factor treatment with iron, the second factor the types of drippers and the third factor the time. The results showed no significant difference in different doses of iron. However, the results indicated significant differences in drip x time interaction and the Christiansen uniformity coefficient (CUC) and relative discharge rate (VR) / Mestre

The purpose of this dissertation is to address risk and consequences of and effective mitigation strategies for urban fire events involving two critical infrastructures- water distribution and emergency services. Water systems have been identified as one of the United States' critical infrastructures and are vulnerable to various threats caused by natural disasters or malevolent actions. The primary goals of urban water distribution systems are reliable delivery of water during normal and emergency conditions (such as fires), ensuring this water is of acceptable quality, and accomplishing these tasks in a cost-effective manner. Due to interdependency of water systems with other critical infrastructures-e.g., energy, public health, and emergency services (including fire response)- water systems planning and management offers numerous challenges to water utilities and affiliated decision makers. The dissertation is divided into three major sections, each of which presents and demonstrates a methodological innovation applied to the above problem. First, a risk based dynamic programming modeling approach is developed to identify the critical components of a water distribution system during fire events under three failure scenarios: (1) accidental failure due to soil-pipe interaction, (2) accidental failure due to a seismic activity, and (3) intentional failure or malevolent attack. Second, a novel evolutionary computation based multi-objective optimization technique, Non-dominated Sorting Evolution Strategy (NSES), is developed for systematic generation of optimal mitigation strategies for urban fire events for water distribution systems with three competing objectives: (1) minimizing fire damages, (2) minimizing water quality deficiencies, and (3) minimizing the cost of mitigation. Third, a stochastic modeling approach is developed to assess urban fire risk for the coupled water distribution and fire response systems that includes probabilistic expressions for building ignition, WDS failure, and wind direction. Urban fire consequences are evaluated in terms of number of people displaced and cost of property damage. To reduce the assessed urban fire risk, the NSES multi-objective approach is utilized to generate Pareto-optimal solutions that express the tradeoff relationship between risk reduction, mitigation cost, and water quality objectives. The new methodologies are demonstrated through successful application to a realistic case study in water systems planning and management.

The need of water and the limited sources, force the researchers to find the most economical and feasible solution in the design of a water distribution network. In this study, reliability and optimization of a water distribution network are taken into account together in the design stage of the network. The relationship between reliability of a water distribution network and its cost is examined during the design of a water distribution network. A methodology for deciding the reliability level of the selected design is proposed by examining the reliability-cost relationship. The design alternatives for the case study area are obtained by the aid of a commercially available software WADISO employing partial enumeration optimization technique. The reliability value for each of the design alternative is calculated according to Misirdali (2003)&rsquo / s adaptation based on the methodology proposed by Bao and Mays (1990) by the aid of a hydraulic network solver program HapMam prepared by Nohut&ccedil / u (2002). For purposes of illustration, the skeletonized form of Ankara Water Distribution Network subpressure zone (N8-1) is taken as the case study area. The methodology in this study, covering the relation between the reliability and the cost of a water distribution network and the proposed reliability level can be used in the design of new systems.

Disinfection of the municipal water systems is mostly achieved by means of chlorine addition at water treatment plants known as sources. Thus, there should be an adequate chlorine concentration at the source for an effective disinfection throughout the system by considering upper and lower limits of disinfectant. However, since the disinfectants are reactive and decays through the system, chlorine added at the source may not be enough to maintain desired disinfectant residuals which may lead to water quality problems in the water distribution system. Moreover, the disinfectants such as chlorine has also an effect to be carcinogen due to formation of disinfectant by-products. Thus, the system should balance the amount of disinfectant supplied while minimizing the health risk. In such a case, it is recommended that one or more booster disinfection stations can be located throughout the system. Such a method can provide more uniform distribution of the chlorine concentration while reducing the amount of the disinfectant used. In this thesis, optimum scheduling, and injection rates of the booster disinfection stations have been searched. The objective is to minimize the injected mass dosage rate subjected to the provision of adequate and more uniform residual concentration in the network. Determination of variable network hydraulics and chlorine concentrations is held out by EPANET network simulation sofware. A C++ code was developed to interface with EPANET by means of the EPANET Programmer&#039 / s Toolkit for linear optimization of the disinfectant mass dosage rate applied to the network.

For cost and reliability efficiency, optimal design and operation of pressurized water distribution networks is highly important. However, optimizing such networks is still a challenge since it requires an appropriate determination of: (1) dimension of pipe / pump / tank - decision variables (2) cost / network reliability - objective functions and (3) limits or restrictions within which the network must operate - a given set of constraints. The costs mentioned here consist in general of capital, construction, and operation costs. The reliability of a network mainly refers to the intrinsic capability of providing water with adequate volume and a certain pressure to consumers under normal and extreme conditions. These contradicting objective functions are functions of network configuration regarding component sizes and network layout. Because considerable uncertainties finally render the overall task to a highly complex problem, most recent approaches mainly focus only on finding a trade-off between minimizing cost and maximizing network reliability. To overcome these limitations, a novel model system that simultaneously considers network configuration, its operation and the relevant uncertainties is proposed in this study. For solving this multi-objective design problem, a simulation-based optimization approach has been developed and applied. The approach couples a hydraulic model (Epanet) with the covariance matrix adaptation evolution strategy (CMA-ES) and can be operated in two different modes. These modes are (1) simulation–based Single-objective optimization and (2) simulation-based multi-objective optimization. Single-objective optimization yields the single best solution with respect to cost or network reliability, whereas multi-objective optimization produces a set of non-dominated solutions called Pareto optimal solutions which are trade-offs between cost and reliability. In addition, to prevent a seriously under-designed network, demand uncertainties was also taken into account through a so called “robustness probability” of the network. This consideration may become useful for a more reliable water distribution network. In order to verify the performance of the proposed approach, it was systematically tested on a number of different benchmark water distribution networks ranging from simple to complex. These benchmark networks are either gravity-fed or pumped networks which need to be optimally designed to supply urban or irrigation water demand under specific constraints. The results show that the new approach is able: • to solve optimization problems of pressurized water distribution network design and operation regarding cost and network reliability; • to directly determine the pumping discharge and head, thus allowing to select pumps more adequately; • to simulate time series of tank water level; • to eliminate redundant pipes and pumps to generate an optimal network layout; • to respond well to complex networks other than only to simple networks; • to perform with multiple demand loading; • to produce reliable Pareto optimal solutions regarding multi-objective optimization. In conclusion, the new technique can be successfully applied for optimization problems in pressurized water distribution network design and operation. The new approach has been demonstrated to be a powerful tool for optimal network design not only for irrigation but also for an urban water supply.

Water availability and the cost of different water sources have been studied at great length. However, information is still needed to determine the policy directions to be undertaken by nations that have not yet achieved universal coverage of an improved water source. To further examine differences in water availability and pricing in the context of the developing world, three communities in Northern Mexico were surveyed to determine the differences in water distribution schemes and associated costs between rural and urban centers. It was observed that rural communities without a piped water supply paid 13 percent more for potable water supplies and 39 percent more for nonpotable water supplies than urban communities with a piped water source. A relationship between access to piped water and the probability of contracting diarrhea was also observed, with households with access to piped water having a lower probability of contracting diarrhea than those households without, and experiencing a lower number of days per month with diarrhea, on average. This leads to the observation that rural communities, who typically are less likely to be able to afford a piped distribution system, are paying more for their water supplies than nearby urban centers, both in terms of the money spent each month for water resources, and the costs associated with contracting and treating diarrhea. Steps should be taken by Mexico and other developing nations to ensure that water is distributed equally and priced fairly, so that the more impoverished subsets of their populations are not paying higher prices for their water.

With increasing global change pressures such as urbanization and climate change, cities of the future will experience difficulties in efficiently managing scarcer and less reliable water resources. However, projections of future global change pressures are plagued with uncertainties. This increases the difficulty in developing urban water systems that are adaptable to future uncertainty. A major component of an urban water system is the distribution system, which constitutes approximately 80-85% of the total cost of the water supply system (Swamee and Sharma, 2008). Traditionally, water distribution systems (WDS) are designed using deterministic assumptions of main model input variables such as water availability and water demand. However, these deterministic assumptions are no longer valid due to the inherent uncertainties associated with them. Hence, a new design approach is required, one that recognizes these inherent uncertainties and develops more adaptable and flexible systems capable of using their active capacity to act or respond to future alterations in a timely, performance-efficient, and cost-effective manner. This study develops a framework for the design of flexible WDS that are adaptable to new, different, or changing requirements. The framework consists of two main parts. The first part consists of several components that are important in the pre and post--processing of the least-cost design methodology of a flexible WDS. These components include: the description of uncertainties affecting WDS design, identification of potential flexibility options for WDS, generation of flexibility through optimization, and a method for assessing of flexibility. For assessment a suite of performance metrics is developed that reflect the degree of flexibility of a distribution system. These metrics focus on the capability of the WDS to respond and react to future changes. The uncertainties description focuses on the spatial and temporal variation of future demand. The second part consists of two optimization models for the design of centralized and decentralized WDS respectively. The first model generates flexible, staged development plans for the incremental growth of a centralized WDS. The second model supports the development of clustered/decentralized WDS. It is argued that these clustered systems promote flexibility as they provide internal degrees of freedom, allowing many different combinations of distribution systems to be considered. For both models a unique genetic algorithm based flexibility optimization (GAFO) model was developed that maximizes the flexibility of a WDS at the least cost. The efficacy of the developed framework and tools are demonstrated through two case study applications on real networks in Uganda. The first application looks at the design of a centralized WDS in Mbale, a small town in Eastern Uganda. Results from this application indicate that the flexibility framework is able to generate a more flexible design of the centralized system that is 4% - 50% less expensive than a conventionally designed system when compared against several future scenarios. In addition, this application highlights that the flexible design has a lower regret under different scenarios when compared to the conventionally designed system (a difference of 11.2m3/US$). The second application analyzes the design of a decentralized network in the town of Aura, a small town in Northern Uganda. A comparison of a decentralized system to a centralized system is performed, and the results indicate that the decentralized system is 24% - 34% less expensive and that these cost savings are associated with the ability of the decentralized system to be staged in a way that traces the urban growth trajectory more closely. The decentralized clustered WDS also has a lower regret (a difference of 17.7m3/US$) associated with the potential future conditions in comparison with the conventionally centralized system and hence is more flexible.

The burdensome capital cost of urban water distribution systems demands the use of efficient optimization methods capable of finding a relatively inexpensive design that guarantees a minimum functionality under all conditions of operation. The combinatorial and nonlinear nature of the optimization problem involved accepts no definitive method of solution. Adaptive search methods are well fitted for this type of problem (to which more formal methods cannot be applied), but their computational requirements demand the development and implementation of additional heuristics to find a satisfactory solution. This work seeks to employ adaptive search methods to enhance the search process used to find the optimal design of any water distribution system. A first study presented here introduces post-optimization heuristics that analyze the best design obtained by a genetic algorithm--arguably the most popular adaptive search method--and perform an ordered local search to maximize further cost savings. When used to analyze the best design found by a genetic algorithm, the proposed post-optimization heuristics method successfully achieved additional cost savings that the genetic algorithm failed to detect after an exhaustive search. The second study herein explores various ways to improve artificial neural networks employed as fast estimators of computationally intensive constraints. The study presents a new methodology for generating any large set of water supply networks to be used for the training of artificial neural networks. This dataset incorporates several distribution networks in the vicinity of the search space in which the genetic algorithm is expected to focus its search. The incorporation of these networks improved the accuracy of artificial neural networks trained with such a dataset. These neural networks consistently showed a lower margin of error than their counterparts trained with conventional training datasets populated by randomly generated distribution networks.