The availability of water is one of the key elements of urban and rural development. The Western United States has dealt with the problem of inadequate water supply for many years; in recent years the concern over ways to meet the water needs of growing populations and industries has been nationwide. This thesis is built upon the concept that municipal wastewater reuse is an increasingly important option in the development of new water supplies and that there are four identifiable factors which affect the evolution of reuse applications. In opening chapters the nature of wastewater reuse and its applications are reviewed; technological, economic, social acceptance, and legal-institutional issues are discussed as the major factors affecting the use of reclaimed wastewater. The preliminary hypothesis of this thesis is that legal and institutional factors are critical obstacles to the reuse of wastewater in satisfying municipal water demand in the State of Virginia. The objective of this thesis is to explore this preliminary statement and generate some information on the nature of legal and institutional factors in Virginia. The City of Virginia Beach is used as a case study because of the City's active interest in water supply and reuse issues, and because of the availability of information. The State level decision making context within which Virginia localities operate in the areas of water supply and sewage treatment is covered and the institutional and legal issues involved in Virginia Beach's recent reuse proposal are discussed. It is concluded that the hypothesis appears to be supported by the evidence available in Virginia Beach; however, the institutional and legal factors are strongly influenced by State agency perceptions of public health and technological uncertainties in the reuse field. Recommendations for further study are presented in the final pages. / Master of Urban and Regional Planning

Le cadre juridique régissant les ressources hydrauliques partagées dans la région de l’Est Méditerranéen dite du Levant souffre d’insuffisances manifestes et semble inadapté à la réalisation de la tâche que ses géniteurs lui ont assigné. Produit essentiellement de conventions bilatérales dont les dispositions s’avèrent parfois contradictoires, il est le fruit d’un contexte politique tendu, sévissant depuis longtemps dans cette partie du monde au point d’en constituer le trait de marque et valorisant une logique de confrontation entre des volontés souveraines peu soucieuses des intérêts des Etats tiers. Il dénote ainsi fermement une absence de prise de conscience du caractère commun des ressources hydrauliques et la nécessité de leur partage au sein d’une communauté d’intérêts. Il se trouve, par ailleurs, en retrait des mutations que connaît dernièrement le droit international des ressources hydrauliques partagées tant superficielles que souterraines. Loin de respecter l’unité hydrologique du bassin du Jourdain, ses stipulations ne permettent pas de donner leur plein effet aux principes de l’utilisation équitable et non dommageable de ses eaux. Or, ces principes coutumiers, désormais codifiés, préconisent une gestion intégrée et globale desdites ressources qui peine toujours à se réaliser le cas échéant. Ils se trouvent d’autant plus dénaturés dans la mesure où leur champ d’application demeure restreint incluant certains Etats riverains à l’exclusion d’autres. Pourtant, l’eau au Levant, dont la situation précaire est évidente, peut se transformer d’un élément générateur de tensions récurrentes à un facteur déclencheur d’une dynamique de coopération sur une échelle régionale. Des impératifs divers y contribueront immanquablement. Cette démarche aura toutefois tout à gagner en empruntant aux dernières avancées du droit international en la matière les modalités et procédures qu’elles prescrivent. Cet apport serait le garant d’une coopération multifonctionnelle et institutionnalisée, s’inscrivant dans un corpus juridique cohérent et global et oeuvrant à l’affermissement d’une culture de la paix. / The current legal framework that dictates the water distribution in the Levant can be considered as inapt and insufficient in the way it overlooks the populations’ current needs. Negotiated upon through a series of bilateral conventions that favored the interests of some sovereign states at the expense of others, today’s legal framework is sustaining the long-standing political tensions in the region. In hindsight, it appears as though the bilateral conventions have shaped a status quo that failed to take into account the vital characteristic of the natural resource in question and its essential need to be shared and equitably distributed in an approach that subscribes within the common interest. Today, although the international water distribution practices witnessed significant evolution, the Levant region nevertheless still finds itself enacting an outdated framework, one that overlooks the hydrological unity of the Jordan Basin. In practice, the bilateral conventions led to a sectarian division of resources as opposed to a more balanced and fair regional one allowing a full implementation to the principles of equitable and non harmful use of international water. These customary principles, now codified, can’t fully be effective through this lacking and deficient legal framework. However, the Levant’s water resources can go from being the bearer of regional tension, to triggering a series of cooperative talks. With a high number of imperatives at stake it is only a matter of time until the regional players reconvene and adopt a more suitable and equitable distribution practice. Doing so would bring about new levels of institutionalized and cooperative practices, which would ultimately lead to a strong affirmation of peace in the region.

This study looks at the process of local policy change in environmental policy decisions. It employs a comparative case study research design to analyze the creation of a new recreational water right in Colorado to support whitewater boating. It compared the 12 communities that have applied for the new water right to 6 non-adopter communities. Factors including stakeholder groups, citizens, policy entrepreneurs, mass media, policy knowledge, policy timing, and politicians' motivations are analyzed to determine their role in local policy decisions. This research also considers how policy change in local communities promoted new state laws, and was in turn influenced by them. The dataset includes interviews with 75 Colorado water experts and community decision makers, mass media coverage of the policy process, and legal and legislative documentation of the process. These data were then analyzed within cases and across cases to create a model of community policy change. This research found that three elements were present when a community's policies changed regarding the use of natural resources. First, the community was dependent on the resource, either economically or socially. Second, a policy entrepreneur was present to influence the community's decision makers to enact a new policy regarding natural resource use. These policy entrepreneurs were most often experts in water law or management. Finally, the community had access to accurate information regarding the new policy. The case study analysis found that neither mass media coverage of the issue nor citizen participation influenced policy change. This may have occurred primarily because water rights were viewed as a technical detail to be handled by experts. Citizens usually became engaged in the process only after the decision to file for the water right had been made. Similarly, media coverage of recreational water rights was present in most cases only after the policy decision had been made. This study provides an understanding of the processes that communities go through in deciding to change policies to account for new non-consumptive uses and the factors that influence those decisions. This research is not only relevant to water law in Colorado, but also to environmental policy in general. / Dissertation

In September 2000 water fluoridation became mandatory in South Africa. Since then water service providers like Umgeni Water (UW), a bulk water supply authority in the KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) province of South Africa began the process of implementing the legislation. This study was undertaken to establish the spatio-temporal variations of fluoride concentrations in surface and ground waters within the Umgeni Operational Area, to establish whether these waters would require fluoridation or defluoridation to meet a fluoride concentration of 0.70 mglf, and to assess the potential impacts of water fluoridation. Baseline fluoride concentrations of surface and ground water: It was concluded that the fluoride concentration of all sample types (rivers, dams, water works raw and final waters, wastewater influent and effluents, and boreholes), except pollution point sources, is less than O.S; mglR, 50 percent of the time. Some rivers (Mshazi, KwaNyuswa, KwaNgcolosi,·Mshwati and the MgoShongweni) exhibited high fluoride concentrations, while someboreholes also exhibited high fluoride concentrations. Temporal Variations and Seasonality: There are seasonal variations in the fluoride concentrations for surface waters, with higher fluoride concentrations in winter than in summer (64 out of 125 occasions). This low fluoride concentration in summer can be attributed to the dilution effects caused by rainfall runoff. Identification of "Hot Spots": "Hot Spots", sites where the fluoride concentration exceeds 1 mglR are present within the study area, for surface and borehole water. For surface water, the MgoShongweni exhibited fluoride concentrations in excess of 1mglRat least 75% of the time. The KwaNgcolosi and Mshwati exhibited fluoride concentrations In excess of 1mglR at least 25% of the time, while the Mshazi and the KwaNyuswa exhibited fluoride concentrations in excess of 1mglR only 5% of the time. The storm water discharge below AECI had high fluoride concentrations in excess of 1mg/R at least 20% of the time and the concentrations exceeded the fluoride concentration for seawater (1.4 mglf) at least 5% of the time. Of the 286 boreholes sampled, 17 boreholes (6% of all boreholes sampled) had fluoride levels in excess oft mglf . The impacts of long term consumption of water from these boreholes could range from slight mottling of the dental enamel in sensitive individuals (boretioles JD26, C29, H19, CB7, 112/1, 69/5, Thembeni 108 and EC (Thembeni 105, Keats Drift boreholes 1 and 2). Spatial patterns and possible sources of high fluoride concentrations: With respect to spatial patterns, relatively high concentrations of fluoride (300 IJglR to 1000 IJglR) can be found in surface water in the Msunduzi river, the Mgeni river downstream of the Msunduzi confluence and along the coastal belt. No spatial patterns are evident with respect to borehole water. For surface water, high fluoride concentrations in the Mshazi, KwaNyuswa and the KwaNgcolosi streams (inflows to the Inanda dam) appear to be associated with the catchment geology. The ~igh fluoride concentrations in Mshwati and the MgoShongweni are most likely as a result of industrial activities in the respective catchments. For borehole water, high fluoride concentrations may be attributed to catchment geology. Additional fluoride dosaqe ' at water treatment works: Since the fluoride concentrations at the water works were low (mean ranging between 0.5 mglf to 0.38 mglf) , fluoride would need to be added to meet the fluoride standard of 0.7 mgl£ . For most of the water works, the additional fluoride (sodium fluoride) requirement to meet the fluoride standard of 0.7 mgl£, ranged from 1.201 kglMRto 1.555 kg/MR. For the water works, Imfume and Umzinto, the additional fluoride , requirement is 0.768 kg/MR and 0.109 kg/MR respectively. In final water, the fluctuations in fluoride concentrations observed would translate to continuous testing being required to maintain optimal dosing of fluoride. Comparison of influent and effluent fluoride concentrations at wastewater works: There was no evidence of fluoride removal at the Mpophomeni Wastewater Works . There was evidence of 22.4% fluoride removal at the DarvHI Wastewater Works possibly due to the activated sludge treatment process at the wastewater works. Future fluoride levels in surface water that will receive return flows: Once water fluoridation is implemented, the Darvill Wastewater Works would receive fluoridated return flows, and discharge its fluoride rich effluent into the Msunduzi river. The average monthly fluoride road discharged from Darvill Wastewater Works would increase from 0.23 tons to 1.46 tons, an additional 1.23 tons per month on the aquatic environment of the Msunduzi river. The sludge fluoride load, disposed to land, could increase from 4 056 tons/month to 27 863 tons/month, which implies an increase in the fluoride runoff potential from the sludge-lands to the Msunduzi river. Number of people in sensitive groups that could be affected by water fluoridation: A significant number of people in KZN could be sensitive to water fluoridation. This has been estimated to be at least one third of KZN's population that are HIV infected. Recommendations were made and the most important ones are as follows: In the light of the large number of people, one-third the population of KZN, that is HIV positive and therefore could be sensitive to fluoridated water, it is recommended that the South African legislation mandating water fluoridation be withdrawn. Examination of the most recent literature indicated a significant lack of confidence in the best available studies that researched the safety and efficacy of water fluoridation. In the light of this it is recommended that the South African Department of Health re-examine and withdraw its legislation that mandates water fluoridation. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2002.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T14:27:08Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 PatriciaBVG.pdf: 1374346 bytes, checksum: ad9ad0a1536dbdfc97fcfe903311beb7 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2008-06-18 / This research proposes a study about the interpretative techniques application that are compatible with the national legal system under the principles for Sustainable Development characterized in Brazilian Constitution. It verifies the actual possibility of reconciliation between national development and environment protection, with reflections under the water legal protection. It was proposed, therefore, to point subsidies for jurisdictional decisions involving development and the environmental goods, protected as constitutionally guaranteed principles. It was assumed that, both development and environment protection represents basic rights that are eventually placed in conflict situations, considering the many legitimate economic activities within the Brazilian State. A representative case analysis was elected within the current national scene, detailing the judicial and political conflict involving the Transboundery water Project from the S?o Francisco River Basin to another Northeastern river basin in Brazil. The implementation of several constitutional principles with elements from legal hermeneutics provides subsidies for the legal analysis about the conflict between development and environmental protection. It was assumed that the main discussion item about rights due to development today is the institutions influence and their results, among them the rules, laws and interpretative elements for the constitutional text objectivity, as the institutions credibility and the Supreme Courts interpretations. The use of interpretative resources for specific conflict situations about constitutional principles by Superior Courts, on the search, would bring a contributory factor for decision safety, related to sustainable development principles, elimination of inequalities and regional protecting for the environment. Specific aspects of Law No. 9.433/97 that introduced the National Water Resources Policy were examined, with its instruments, in order to specifically contextualize aspects of the Brazilian water resources management politics / Essa pesquisa aborda a aplica??o de t?cnicas interpretativas compat?veis com o ordenamento jur?dico nacional, no ?mbito dos princ?pios ?nsitos ao Desenvolvimento Sustent?vel que caracterizam a Ordem Econ?mica Constitucional brasileira, para verificar a possibilidade concreta de compatibiliza??o entre o desenvolvimento nacional e a prote??o do meio-ambiente, com reflexos na prote??o jur?dica da ?gua. Prop?s-se, por conseguinte, a apontar subs?dios para a forma??o de crit?rios de decidibilidade em abstrato, no tocante ?s quest?es que envolvam bens ambientalmente protegidos e o desenvolvimento enquanto princ?pio constitucionalmente assegurado. Partiu-se do pressuposto segundo o qual, tanto o desenvolvimento quanto a prote??o do meio-ambiente representam direitos fundamentais que eventualmente est?o colocados em situa??es de colis?o, em face das in?meras atividades econ?micas legitimadas no seio do Estado brasileiro. Procede-se uma an?lise de caso atual no cen?rio nacional, qual seja o detalhamento do conflito jurisdicional e pol?tico que envolve o Projeto de Transposi??o das ?guas da Bacia Hidrogr?fica do Rio S?o Francisco para a as Bacias Hidrogr?ficas do Nordeste Setentrional, de lavra da Administra??o P?blica Federal. Pretendeu-se fornecer subs?dios ? an?lise jur?dica do conflito entre desenvolvimento e prote??o ambiental, perpassando a aplica??o de v?rios princ?pios constitucionais tendo em vista alguns elementos da hermen?utica principiol?gica. Partiu-se do pressuposto de que o principal elemento de discuss?o do direito ao desenvolvimento hoje ? a influ?ncia das institui??es nos resultados obtidos, dentre os quais as regras, leis e respectivos elementos de objetiva??o interpretativa do texto constitucional, uma vez que a credibilidade das institui??es, como leis e interpreta??es dos Tribunais Superiores depende, em certa medida, do adequado tratamento dado ao conflito juridicizado. A utiliza??o de recursos interpretativos espec?ficos para as situa??es de colis?o de princ?pios constitucionais pelos Tribunais Superiores, segundo a hip?tese de pesquisa, traria um elemento contributivo de seguran?a da decis?o, ao serem ventilados no m?rito princ?pios relacionados ao desenvolvimento sustent?vel, com elimina??o de desigualdades regionais e prote??o ao meio-ambiente. Aspectos espec?ficos da Lei n? 9.433/97 que instituiu a Pol?tica Nacional de Recursos H?dricos foram examinados, com seus instrumentos e entes, com vistas a contextualizar as especificidades do ambiente regulat?rio da gest?o de ?guas doces no Brasil

M.A. / That South Africa is experiencing a water management crisis, is a fact that cannot be ignored. Although water supply departments and agencies are doing their best under the complex and demanding circumstances and have many examples of successful water projects to show for their efforts, inefficiency, unfairness and unsustainability still characterise much of the use and management of water and resources. This makes satisfying society's growing demand for reliable and legitimate water allocation extremely difficult. Groundwater is usually regarded by consumers as "private" water to be used as they please. Excessive use by such consumers of a borehole may lower the water table and reduce the amount of useable water for other consumers dependant on the same source. Some farms of land use, utilising a larger portion of available rainfall, for example commercial forestry in mountainous areas, reduce runoff into streams lower down, hampering the development potential of downstream areas. Other activities such as agriculture, mining and domestic uses, lower the quality of surface and underground water, making it unsuitable for use. Being such a scarce commodity, water should be used in the most efficient and beneficial way possible for every one in South Africa. In essence this means that all water used must be priced in accordance with its real economic value. The Water Act of 1998 is clearly based on an economic approach to bulk water tariffs. This means allocating water with the aid of water usage rights which are well defined, legitimate and non-discriminatory. The new water Act proposes a water licensing and pricing policy to achieve this goal. In striving for the economic goal, the ideal of sustainability of water management for future generations will become a reality. This study discusses the shortcomings of the previous water legislation as well as the replacement thereof with a more equitable and accessible water act. The study also contains comments on the possible shortcomings with the feasibility of some of the provisions of the new act, such as a conflict of interest that may develop, as well as possible preventive measures that should currently be undertaken to try and eliminate future problems.

Magister Administrationis - MAdmin / This study examined the impact of the City’s water management strategies, specifically the water management devices, on selected households in Saxonsea. The impact of cost recovery policies on poor households was interrogated in the light of government’s distributional and procedural equity in service delivery. The main issues arising from the study were lack of consultation, inadequate information, and perception of powerlessness. The study concludes that although water management devices have contributed to significant improvements in water saving, poor households are burdened with the responsibility of saving water. If the idea is to save water across the board, this regimen should be extended to all water users and not targeted at poor households only

Sverige har generellt god tillgång till vatten, dock varierar vattentillgången och vattenanvändningen inom olika områden runtom i landet och lokala vattenbrister kan förekomma. Vattenbristen drabbar i första hand befolkning med enskild vattenförsörjning som får dricksvatten från enskilda vattentäkter, vanligen grundvattenbrunnar. Vid Sveriges kustområden och skärgårdsöar, där grundvattennivåer sjunker samtidigt som saltvatteninträngningar drabbar allt fler brunnar, aktualiseras avsaltning av havsvatten som en möjlig lösning för potentiell dricksvattenförsörjning. Antalet småskaliga avsaltningsanläggningar ökar men exakt antal förblir okänt. Detta beror på att anläggningar som producerar mindre än 10m3/dygn och inte används inom livsmedel eller offentlig verksamhet inte är anmälningspliktiga. Detta examensarbete grundar sig i en litteratur- och enkätstudie som syftar till att sammanställa kunskapsläget kring avsaltningstekniker för saltvatten samt de juridiska och organisatoriska aspekter som kan påverka implementering av avsaltningsanläggningar förprivat bruk i Sverige. Dessutom presenteras en marknadsöversikt över 6 ledande avsaltningsleverantörer samt en exempelsamling över 3 avsaltningsanläggningar som finns runt om i Stockholms län. Resultaten visar att membranbaserad avsaltning är den mest energieffektiva metoden för saltavskiljning. Membrantekniken omvänd osmos används för småskalig avsaltning av havsvatten i Sverige och på den svenska marknaden återfinns en rad olika teknikleverantörer och återförsäljare som specialiserar sig på avsaltning. Över 5500 småskaliga avsaltningsanläggningar kunde identifieras som sålda i Stockholm skärgård, dock uppskattas det totala antalet avsaltningsanläggningar i bruk vara betydligt högre. Resultaten visar även att svenska kommuner har dålig kunskap om avsaltning. Småskaliga avsaltningsanläggningar som används för enskild vattenförsörjning faller inte under anmälnings- eller tillståndsplikt utifrån kapitel 11 Miljöbalken. Detta medför att kommuner saknar kunskap om icke-anmälningspliktiga avsaltningsanläggningar som finns i bruk inom kommunen. Den rådande kunskapsbristen leder till svårigheter vid bedömning av avsaltningslämplighet för enskild vattenförsörjning vid bygglovsansökningar och kustkommuner efterfrågar tydlig vägledning från nationella myndigheter. Slutsatsen är att i dagsläget finns ett stort behov av kunskapshöjande insatser kring avsaltning och ett nationellt samarbete krävs i syfte att ta fram en samlad bedömning och standardiserad hantering av frågor om avsaltning för enskild vattenförsörjning. Kustkommuner bör även vidta åtgärder för att öka kunskap om de avsaltningsanläggningar som finns i bruk inom kommunen i syfte att bedöma vattenkvaliteten vid dessa anläggningar och säkerställa att miljöbalkens föreskrifter om hälsoskydd uppfylls. / Sweden generally has good access to water. However, water supply and water use vary in different areas around the country and local water scarcity may occur. The water scarcity primarily affects households with individual water supply who receive drinking water from individual water sources, usually groundwater wells. At Sweden’s coastal areas and archipelago islands, where groundwater levels are decreasing at the same time as saltwater intrusion is affecting more and more wells, desalination of seawater is being brought up as a possible solution for potential drinking water supply. The number of small-scale desalination plants is increasing, but the exact number remains unknown. This thesis is based on a literature and questionnaire study which aims to compile the state of knowledge about desalination techniques for salt water and the legal and organizational aspects that may affect the implementation of desalination plants for private use in Sweden. In addition, a market overview of 6 leading desalination suppliers and a collection of examples of 3 desalination plants located around Stockholm County is presented. The results show that membrane-based desalination is the most energy-efficient method for salt separation. The membrane technology, reverse osmosis, is used for small-scale desalination of seawater in Sweden, and on the Swedish market there are a number of different technology suppliers and retailers that specialize in desalination. More than 5,500 small-scale desalination plants could be identified as sold in the Stockholm archipelago, however, the total number of desalination plants in use is estimated to be significantly higher. The results also show that Swedish municipalities have lacking knowledge of desalination. Small-scale desalination plants used for individual water supply do not fall under the notification or permit requirement based on Chapter 11 of the Environmental Code. This means that municipalities lack knowledge about non-notifiable desalination plants that are in use within the municipality. The current lack of knowledge leads to difficulties in assessing the desalination suitability for individual water supply in building permit applications and coastal municipalities require clear guidance from national authorities. In conclusion, currently there is a great need for knowledge-enhancing initiatives regarding desalination and national cooperation is required in order to produce an overall assessment and standardized handling of issues concerning desalination for individual water supply. Coastal municipalities should also take measures to increase knowledge about the desalination plants in use within the municipality in order to assess the water quality from these facilities and ensure that the Environmental Code's regulations on health protection are complied with.

Prepared for the U.S. Water Resources Scientific Information Center./ Bibliography: p. 141-220.

In this minithesis I have investigated overlapping mandates as a source of management failure in water management in South Africa in general and Eerste River Catchment in particular. I analysed major legislation which deals with water management to find out how duties and responsibilities are apportioned in the various pieces of legislation. I also undertook an exercise of evaluating roles and responsibilities played by various organs of state in water management from national government, Provincial Government of the Western Cape through to local government, in this case the Municipality of Stellenbosch and the City of Cape Town. It emerged that there were a number of areas of overlap, ambiguously defined mandates, conflict and that these were impeding on decision making in water management. In order to test the framework built above, I then applied it in the Plankenbrug River, a tributary of the Eerste River. Through analysis of newspaper clippings over a period of 4 years I was able to reconstruct conflict over ill-defined mandates in the various aspects of the management of the catchment which showed that<br /> there were differences in roles of the different state organs operating in the catchment. Water management conflict emanated from lack of congruence in the various legislation and differences in the interpretation of legislation. The various state organs seem to be aware of the constitutional duty of cooperative government that engenders state organs to work co-operatively in order to meet their developmental mandates. It seems however that the state organs were merely interested to be seen to be in conformity with this duty more than actually solving the issue as this was seen as something to be tackled at a higher level.